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Final Exam Study Guide Semester 1 2010 free energy: energy available to do work heterotroph: organisms that need to eat another organism autotroph: organisms that can make their own food decomposer: organisms that eat dead organisms or their waste products and returns the atoms in a usable form consumer: eat other organisms, also called heterotrophs food web: shows the energy and feeding relationships between organisms entropy: tendency towards randomness or disorder, as energy moves between trophic levels entropy increases intracellular digestion: inside cells, used by plants and unicellular organisms biological magnification: increase in concentration of toxins in organisms as you go up the food chain; toxins have the most effect on the top level consumers secretion: excreting a substance out of a cell or structure active transport: movement of substances from an area of low concentration to high concentration (against the concentration gradient), requires energy from ATP exocytosis: process that gets a large molecule or waste products out of a cell endocytosis: process that brings large molecules into a cell enclosed in a plasma membrane bubble (vesicle) histones: proteins that DNA wrap around nucleosomes: groups of 8 histones and DNA homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that have information about the same traits on them; we get 1 of each pair from mom and 1 from dad haploid: cells with 1 member of each chromosome pair diploid: cells with 2 members of each chromosome pair chromatid: one side of a duplicated chromosome retrovirus: RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to form a DNA strand; it then becomes a provirus by inserting the DNA into the DNA of the cell codon: group of 3 nucleotides on an mRNA molecule, codes for an amino acid anticodon: group of 3 nucleotides on a tRNA molecule, is complementary to the codon gamete: haploid sex cell produced by meiosis gene: sequence of DNA that codes to build RNA molecules and proteins buffers: substances that minimize pH change by accepting or donating protons (H+ ions) enzymes: lower the activation energy of a reaction lactase: enzyme that breaks down lactose physical digestion: chewing etc that increases surface area of food for chemical digestion small intestine: site of most digestion, all absorption of nutrients into blood large intestine: absorbs water from undigested food pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine, secretes bicarbonate ions into small intestine to raise the pH, controls blood sugar levels by secreting insulin villi: structures that increase surface area for absorption in the small intestine peristalsis: muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract cell membrane: controls passage of materials into and out of cells transport protein: allow large or charged molecules to move across a cell membrane alveoli: increase surface area in the lungs for gas exchange skin oils: prevent water loss nephron: functional unit of the kidney, filters waste products out of the blood ADH: (anti-diuretic hormone) controls the amount of urine produced Mesophyll: layer of the leaf where photosynthesis takes place spongy layer: part of the mesophyll; allows for gas exchange in leaf cells stomates: pores in a leaf that allow gas exchange with the environment and transpiration photosynthesis: process that converts light energy into chemical energy cellular respiration: process that converts food energy into ATP mitochondria: site of aerobic cellular respiration glycogen: storage of excess glucose in animal muscles and liver cells lactic acid: produced through anaerobic respiration in animal cells, causes muscle pain pyruvate: created by the splitting of glucose during glycolysis cell organelles: Cell membrane: controls what enters and leaves the cell; golgi: packages secretions; lysosome: contains digestive enzymes; ribosome: synthesizes proteins; nucleus: contains the DNA; mitochondrion: site of cell respiration; cell wall: support for cells in plants; chloroplast: site of photosynthesis; vacuole: large storage structure in plant cells; nucleolus: makes ribosomes; endoplasmic reticulum: passageway for proteins in a cell cell division: mitotic cell division is for growth, maintenance and repair DNA polymerase: builds the complementary strand of DNA during replication in the 5’ to 3’ direction, proofreads and corrects errors proofreader enzymes: corrects errors (mutations) created in replication centromere: holds 2 sister chromatids together mitosis: division of the chromosomes Okazaki fragment: small segments of DNA that are used to replicate the lagging strand amino acids: building blocks of proteins RNA processing: addition of mGuanine cap, poly-A tail and removal of introns by splicosomes tRNA: brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation # of atoms and molecules in an equation: 2H2 + O2 2H2O 2 kinds of atoms; 12 total atoms; 2 types of molecules; 5 total molecules why do human genes work in bacteria?: because they use the same building blocks (DNA nucleotides and the genetic code) Advantages of using bacteria to make HGH: safer, cheaper, same as human produced HGH When is the scientific method used?: anytime you want to solve a problem Info in a chemical formula: # and kind of atoms, not their arrangement 6 most common elements in living things: CHNOPS H bonds: form between H of one water molecule and O of another one pH scale, types of ions: 1-14, lowest number is the strongest acid, highest is the strongest base, the closer to 7 the weaker the acid or base, acid: H+ ions, base: OH- ions effect of carbon dioxide in water: lowers the pH since it creates carbonic acid building blocks of carbs: monosaccharides or simple sugars; proteins: amino acids; lipids: glycerol and 3 fatty acids; nucleotides: 5 carbon sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogen base what makes 1 protein different from another?: the order of the amino acids How does free energy become available for organisms?: by breaking chemical bonds What effect does temperature have on enzymes?: there is an optimal temperature range for each enzyme; too hot and it denatures, to cold and the rate of reaction slows down Characteristics of enzymes: chains of amino acids, are not used up, have optimal pH and temperature ranges; are specific, lower the activation energy of a reaction; have an active site where the substrate attaches Where is cellulose digested?: it’s not digested by animals, only by microorganisms that live in their gut Where are fats digested?: small intestine Where does carb digestion begin?: in the mouth; Protein digestion?: in the stomach Cell membrane composition: phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates Direction of diffusion: from high concentration to low concentration Why molecules diffuse: random molecular motion What do polar molecules need to diffuse: a transport protein Results of osmosis—hypertonic: cells lose water so they shrink; hypotonic: cells gain water so they swell; isotonic: no net change in amount of water Source of energy for active transport: hydrolysis of ATP Why do fish ventilate their gills?: there is less oxygen in water than in air Result of water loss on stomates: they close; less CO2 gets into the leaf so the rate of photosynthesis goes down How do kidneys help maintain homeostasis?: they remove nitrogen wastes, regulate blood pressure, water balance and blood pH Types of nitrogen containing wastes: ammonia, urea, uric acid Types of autotrophs and their energy sources: photoautotrophs use light, chemoautotrophs use inorganic compounds Location of pigments in chloroplasts: thlakoid membrane Equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Cellular respiration: 6 O2 + C6H12O6 6 CO2 + 6 H2O Products of the Light Reactions: ATP, NADPH, oxygen Energy source for chemoautotrophs: inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide Why do leaves look green?: they reflect green light What absorbs the light energy and what is it given off as?: pigments absorb the light energy and give it off as excited electrons What do all organisms need?: an energy and carbon source What happens to the oxygen in water during photosynthesis?: it is released to the atmosphere through the stomates What are sugar phosphates used for?: (3 carbon sugar) can be used to make any type of molecules the plant needs What is the role of mitochondria in cell respiration: site of aerobic cell respiration Light reactions vs Calvin Cycle: light absorbed--LR, oxygen used--neither, carbon dioxide used--CC, catalyzed by enzymes--both, oxygen produced--LR, glucose broken down--neither, sugar produced--CC, ATP produced--LR Flow of energy in cells: foodATPcell work (heat) Where does glycolysis occur?: in the cytoplasm; The Krebs cycle?: in the mitochondrial matrix; most ATP formation?: electron transport chain What happens to energy left in glucose after CR?: it’s released as heat What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?: oxygen, forms water How much more ATP is produced aerobically than anaerobically? 2 anaerobically, 36-38 aerobically Hooke: discovered cells Schleiden: saw nuclei and cytoplasm in plant cells Schwann: saw nuclei and cytoplasm in animal cells Virchow: saw cell division van Leeuwenhoek: saw microorganisms Prokaryote Reproduction: binary fission Phases of cell cycle: G1: metabolism and growth, S: synthesis or replication of DNA and histones; G2: preparation for cell division, M: nuclear and cell division, sometimes G0: extended metabolism phase—cells don’t divide Phases of mitosis: prophase: nuclear membrane disappears, chromatin condensed into chromosomes, spindle forms; metaphase: chromosomes line up single file on the equator; anaphase: centromere splits and chromosomes move to opposite poles; telophase: cell membrane reforms, chromosomes uncoil into chromatin; then cytokinesis: cytoplasm and organells are divided into 2 cells What are the results of mitosis: produces cells with the same chromosome number as the parent cell; meiosis: produces cells with ½ the number of chromosomes as the parent cell Number of chromosomes before and after mitosis; in humans 46 before, arranged into 92 chromatids; 46 in each cell after Number of chromosomes before and after meiosis: in humans 46 before, arranged into 92 chromatids; 23 in each cell after 2 rounds of division DNA strands- anti parallel: strands run in opposite direction; base paining rules: A-T, C-G; complementary: partner is opposite each nucleotide based on the pairing rules Relationship between DNA and protein: sequence of nucleotides in the DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in the protein What do genes code for: proteins Flow of info in cells: DNARNAprotein How are proteins different from each other?: the order of the amino acids DNA building blocks: nucleotides; sugar: deoxyribose; location: mainly in the nucleus; double stranded RNA building blocks: nucleotides; sugar: ribose; location: both the nucleus and cytoplasm; single stranded Gene expression- first step: RNA synthesis Steps in transcription, translation: initiation, elongation, termination Effects of mutation, types- frameshift: changes the reading frame so the protein is changed from the point of the mutation onwards; insertions or deletions Point: substitution of one base for another, can cause no change in the protein or just change 1 amino acid DNA RNA protein: be able to read a DNA sequence and form its mRNA and find the amino acid sequence (use the worksheet or make up your own) Ribosome structure: made of rRNA and proteins What type of mutation cause sickle cell?: point mutation