Download Final Exam Study Guide

Final Exam Study Guide
Semester 1 2010
free energy: energy available to do work
heterotroph: organisms that need to eat another organism
autotroph: organisms that can make their own food
decomposer: organisms that eat dead organisms or their waste products and
returns the atoms in a usable form
consumer: eat other organisms, also called heterotrophs
food web: shows the energy and feeding relationships between organisms
entropy: tendency towards randomness or disorder, as energy moves between
trophic levels entropy increases
intracellular digestion: inside cells, used by plants and unicellular organisms
biological magnification: increase in concentration of toxins in organisms as you go
up the food chain; toxins have the most effect on the top level consumers
secretion: excreting a substance out of a cell or structure
active transport: movement of substances from an area of low concentration to
high concentration (against the concentration gradient), requires energy from ATP
exocytosis: process that gets a large molecule or waste products out of a cell
endocytosis: process that brings large molecules into a cell enclosed in a plasma
membrane bubble (vesicle)
histones: proteins that DNA wrap around
nucleosomes: groups of 8 histones and DNA
homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that have information about the same
traits on them; we get 1 of each pair from mom and 1 from dad
haploid: cells with 1 member of each chromosome pair
diploid: cells with 2 members of each chromosome pair
chromatid: one side of a duplicated chromosome
retrovirus: RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to form a DNA strand; it
then becomes a provirus by inserting the DNA into the DNA of the cell
codon: group of 3 nucleotides on an mRNA molecule, codes for an amino acid
anticodon: group of 3 nucleotides on a tRNA molecule, is complementary to the
codon
gamete: haploid sex cell produced by meiosis
gene: sequence of DNA that codes to build RNA molecules and proteins
buffers: substances that minimize pH change by accepting or donating protons (H+
ions)
enzymes: lower the activation energy of a reaction
lactase: enzyme that breaks down lactose
physical digestion: chewing etc that increases surface area of food for chemical
digestion
small intestine: site of most digestion, all absorption of nutrients into blood
large intestine: absorbs water from undigested food
pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine, secretes bicarbonate
ions into small intestine to raise the pH, controls blood sugar levels by secreting
insulin
villi: structures that increase surface area for absorption in the small intestine
peristalsis: muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract
cell membrane: controls passage of materials into and out of cells
transport protein: allow large or charged molecules to move across a cell membrane
alveoli: increase surface area in the lungs for gas exchange
skin oils: prevent water loss
nephron: functional unit of the kidney, filters waste products out of the blood
ADH: (anti-diuretic hormone) controls the amount of urine produced
Mesophyll: layer of the leaf where photosynthesis takes place
spongy layer: part of the mesophyll; allows for gas exchange in leaf cells
stomates: pores in a leaf that allow gas exchange with the environment and
transpiration
photosynthesis: process that converts light energy into chemical energy
cellular respiration: process that converts food energy into ATP
mitochondria: site of aerobic cellular respiration
glycogen: storage of excess glucose in animal muscles and liver cells
lactic acid: produced through anaerobic respiration in animal cells, causes muscle
pain
pyruvate: created by the splitting of glucose during glycolysis
cell organelles: Cell membrane: controls what enters and leaves the cell; golgi:
packages secretions; lysosome: contains digestive enzymes; ribosome: synthesizes
proteins; nucleus: contains the DNA; mitochondrion: site of cell respiration; cell
wall: support for cells in plants; chloroplast: site of photosynthesis; vacuole: large
storage structure in plant cells; nucleolus: makes ribosomes; endoplasmic reticulum:
passageway for proteins in a cell
cell division: mitotic cell division is for growth, maintenance and repair
DNA polymerase: builds the complementary strand of DNA during replication in the
5’ to 3’ direction, proofreads and corrects errors
proofreader enzymes: corrects errors (mutations) created in replication
centromere: holds 2 sister chromatids together
mitosis: division of the chromosomes
Okazaki fragment: small segments of DNA that are used to replicate the lagging
strand
amino acids: building blocks of proteins
RNA processing: addition of mGuanine cap, poly-A tail and removal of introns by
splicosomes
tRNA: brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation
# of atoms and molecules in an equation: 2H2 + O2  2H2O
2 kinds of atoms; 12 total atoms; 2 types of molecules; 5 total molecules
why do human genes work in bacteria?: because they use the same building blocks
(DNA nucleotides and the genetic code)
Advantages of using bacteria to make HGH: safer, cheaper, same as human
produced HGH
When is the scientific method used?: anytime you want to solve a problem
Info in a chemical formula: # and kind of atoms, not their arrangement
6 most common elements in living things: CHNOPS
H bonds: form between H of one water molecule and O of another one
pH scale, types of ions: 1-14, lowest number is the strongest acid, highest is the
strongest base, the closer to 7 the weaker the acid or base, acid: H+ ions, base:
OH- ions
effect of carbon dioxide in water: lowers the pH since it creates carbonic acid
building blocks of carbs: monosaccharides or simple sugars; proteins: amino acids;
lipids: glycerol and 3 fatty acids; nucleotides: 5 carbon sugar, phosphate group and
a nitrogen base
what makes 1 protein different from another?: the order of the amino acids
How does free energy become available for organisms?: by breaking chemical bonds
What effect does temperature have on enzymes?: there is an optimal temperature
range for each enzyme; too hot and it denatures, to cold and the rate of reaction
slows down
Characteristics of enzymes: chains of amino acids, are not used up, have optimal pH
and temperature ranges; are specific, lower the activation energy of a reaction;
have an active site where the substrate attaches
Where is cellulose digested?: it’s not digested by animals, only by microorganisms
that live in their gut
Where are fats digested?: small intestine
Where does carb digestion begin?: in the mouth; Protein digestion?: in the stomach
Cell membrane composition: phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates
Direction of diffusion: from high concentration to low concentration
Why molecules diffuse: random molecular motion
What do polar molecules need to diffuse: a transport protein
Results of osmosis—hypertonic: cells lose water so they shrink; hypotonic: cells gain
water so they swell; isotonic: no net change in amount of water
Source of energy for active transport: hydrolysis of ATP
Why do fish ventilate their gills?: there is less oxygen in water than in air
Result of water loss on stomates: they close; less CO2 gets into the leaf so the
rate of photosynthesis goes down
How do kidneys help maintain homeostasis?: they remove nitrogen wastes, regulate
blood pressure, water balance and blood pH
Types of nitrogen containing wastes: ammonia, urea, uric acid
Types of autotrophs and their energy sources: photoautotrophs use light,
chemoautotrophs use inorganic compounds
Location of pigments in chloroplasts: thlakoid membrane
Equations for photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Cellular respiration: 6 O2 + C6H12O6  6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Products of the Light Reactions: ATP, NADPH, oxygen
Energy source for chemoautotrophs: inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide
Why do leaves look green?: they reflect green light
What absorbs the light energy and what is it given off as?: pigments absorb the
light energy and give it off as excited electrons
What do all organisms need?: an energy and carbon source
What happens to the oxygen in water during photosynthesis?: it is released to the
atmosphere through the stomates
What are sugar phosphates used for?: (3 carbon sugar) can be used to make any
type of molecules the plant needs
What is the role of mitochondria in cell respiration: site of aerobic cell respiration
Light reactions vs Calvin Cycle: light absorbed--LR, oxygen used--neither, carbon
dioxide used--CC, catalyzed by enzymes--both, oxygen produced--LR, glucose
broken down--neither, sugar produced--CC, ATP produced--LR
Flow of energy in cells: foodATPcell work (heat)
Where does glycolysis occur?: in the cytoplasm; The Krebs cycle?: in the
mitochondrial matrix; most ATP formation?: electron transport chain
What happens to energy left in glucose after CR?: it’s released as heat
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?: oxygen, forms water
How much more ATP is produced aerobically than anaerobically? 2 anaerobically,
36-38 aerobically
Hooke: discovered cells
Schleiden: saw nuclei and cytoplasm in plant cells
Schwann: saw nuclei and cytoplasm in animal cells
Virchow: saw cell division
van Leeuwenhoek: saw microorganisms
Prokaryote Reproduction: binary fission
Phases of cell cycle: G1: metabolism and growth, S: synthesis or replication of DNA
and histones; G2: preparation for cell division, M: nuclear and cell division,
sometimes G0: extended metabolism phase—cells don’t divide
Phases of mitosis: prophase: nuclear membrane disappears, chromatin condensed
into chromosomes, spindle forms; metaphase: chromosomes line up single file on the
equator; anaphase: centromere splits and chromosomes move to opposite poles;
telophase: cell membrane reforms, chromosomes uncoil into chromatin; then
cytokinesis: cytoplasm and organells are divided into 2 cells
What are the results of mitosis: produces cells with the same chromosome number
as the parent cell; meiosis: produces cells with ½ the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell
Number of chromosomes before and after mitosis; in humans 46 before, arranged
into 92 chromatids; 46 in each cell after
Number of chromosomes before and after meiosis: in humans 46 before, arranged
into 92 chromatids; 23 in each cell after 2 rounds of division
DNA strands- anti parallel: strands run in opposite direction; base paining rules:
A-T, C-G; complementary: partner is opposite each nucleotide based on the pairing
rules
Relationship between DNA and protein: sequence of nucleotides in the DNA codes
for the sequence of amino acids in the protein
What do genes code for: proteins
Flow of info in cells: DNARNAprotein
How are proteins different from each other?: the order of the amino acids
DNA building blocks: nucleotides; sugar: deoxyribose; location: mainly in the
nucleus; double stranded
RNA building blocks: nucleotides; sugar: ribose; location: both the nucleus and
cytoplasm; single stranded
Gene expression- first step: RNA synthesis
Steps in transcription, translation: initiation, elongation, termination
Effects of mutation, types- frameshift: changes the reading frame so the protein
is changed from the point of the mutation onwards; insertions or deletions
Point: substitution of one base for another, can cause no change in the protein or
just change 1 amino acid
DNA  RNA  protein: be able to read a DNA sequence and form its mRNA and
find the amino acid sequence (use the worksheet or make up your own)
Ribosome structure: made of rRNA and proteins
What type of mutation cause sickle cell?: point mutation