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DİPLOMATİK
YABANCI DİL
DİPLOMATİK YAZIŞMA VE
KONUŞMA TEKNİKLERİ
DERS NOTLARI
METE AKKAYA
BÖLÜM I - Temel bilgiler ve örnekler
CONTENTS
DEFINITIONS...............................................................................….................3
Courses (excerpts) by Ambassador (Retired) Tahir Şentürk...............................4
The Technique of Negotiation by Ambassador (Ret) Mustafa Akşin …………5
GRAMMAR - COMPOSITION......................................................…...............9
The Practical Stylist (Sheridan Baker)..............................................................10
Common Mistakes in English (T.J.Fitikides)...................................................19
Matriculation English - Grammar of Modern English Usage
(Llewellyn Tipping)..........................................................................................24
The Practical Stylist (2)....................................................................................38
How to Use Your Time Efficiently When Writing (Larry R.Smeltzer and
Jeanette W.Gilsdorf).........................................................................................45
GLOSSARY - ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................49
Brief Glossary of Diplomatic, Consular, Legal and Economic Terms; Foreign
Words and Phrases...........................................................................................50
Confused Words...............................................................................................62
Common Mistakes and Misuses.......................................................................66
International Organisations...............................................................................79
Nations of the World.........................................................................................82
Samples of Diplomatic Correspondence.........................................................115
Sample Texts..................................................................................................116
Johnson Letter (1964) and Reply by İnönü.....................................................140
2
DEFINITIONS
3
(Excerpts from “Courses on Diplomatic Correspondence” (1995) by Retired
Ambassador Tahir Şentürk)
Diplomatic correspondence:
The correspondence that a government maintains, on the one hand with the
foreign missions accredited to it and on the other hand, through the intermediary of its
missions abroad, with other governments and/or international organisations.
Diplomacy:
At one moment the word “diplomacy” is employed as a synonym for “foreign
policy”...at another moment it signifies “negotiation”...more specifically , the word
denotes the processes and machinery by which such negotiation is carried out. Finally,
diplomacy means “skill, mastery and dexterity” in the conduct of international
negotiations, and, in its worse sense, implies the more guileful aspects of tact. (Sir Harold
Nicholson)
Diplomat:
The term “diplomat” is adopted to designate all the public servants employed in
diplomatic affairs, whether serving at home or abroad. Strictly speaking, the head of the
foreign department (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) is also a diplomat.
The basis of good negotiation is moral influence and that influence is founded
on seven diplomatic virtues, namely: truthfulness, precision, calm, good temper,
patience, modesty and royalty.
Diplomatic language:
The expression is used to denote three different things. (a) The actual language
which is employed in their converse or correspondence with each other. (b) The technical
phrases which have become part of ordinary diplomatic vocabulary. (c) The guarded
under-statement which enables diplomats to say sharp things to each other without
becoming provocative or impolite.
Various forms of diplomatic correspondence:
1. Note
The ordinary diplomatic note or the official note is a formal communication
from the foreign affairs department to a diplomatic mission or vice versa, or from one
mission to the others.
There are two kinds of diplomatic note: (a) Signed note (note signée) - A
document signed by its sender. (b) Verbal note (note verbale) - A document written in
the third person and is not signed.
2. Aide-memoire and memorandum
Following an oral representation to the foreign department of the host country, a
summary of the remarks made is left behind, in one of the above-mentioned forms. In
principle they serve the same purpose; but, memorandum is contains facts and arguments
in more detail.
3. Non-paper
When a foreign department does not yet wish to take a stand on an issue, a
diplomat may choose to discuss the issue and leave a non-paper in which the matter is
clarified in a non-committal way.
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THE TECHNIQUE OF NEGOTIATION
Mustafa Akşin - Ambassador (Retired)
1. All foreign service officers who want to be successful in their careers must
have a thorough knowledge of the technique of negotiation. Through negotiation,
diplomats seek compromises between divergent views, try to reconcile conflicting
interests, and, in this manner, secure the smooth development of international relations.
A good negotiator is intelligent, shrewd and articulate. To succeed in a
negotiation he must also have a good knowledge of human nature. In addition, he must
be familiar with and apply the technique of negotiation.
2. Every negotiation has a purpose.
The purpose of a negotiation is to
reconcile the different positions of the negotiators. If one of the sides is not prepared to
seek a compromise, obviously, the negotiation cannot succeed.
3. Since the negotiations we are dealing with are conducted with foreigners and,
usually, in a foreign language, the negotiator must be fluent in the language he has to use.
This is necessary not only to explain his own position, but in order to fully understand the
other side's position.
4. A good negotiator is expected to have a thorough knowledge of the subject
he is negotiating. In other words, he must, before he undertakes the negotiation, study his
files very carefully and acquire as much information about the subject as possible.
However, it is not enough to have a detailed knowledge of one's files. One must
also know the historical background of the case. An effective negotiator not only knows
his subject and his own position well, but he tries to understand the other side's position
and attempts to identify the weak and strong points of that position.
5. A good negotiator is one who is well read and has a good background of
general knowledge. Only a well-informed negotiator can place the subject he is
negotiating in its proper historical context and relate it to other subjects.
6. To succeed, the negotiator must be able to draw the other side towards his
own position. To be able to do this, he must believe in the correctness and the fairness of
his own position. It is futile to expect a negotiator who entertains doubts about his own
position to have any power of persuasion over the other side.
7. In a negotiation one must always be courteous and never make personal
attacks on the other side. At the same time, one must never allow one's own person or
one' own delegation to be slighted by the other side. It must always be borne in mind
that both sides in a negotiation represent sovereign states. To insult or belittle the
representative of a foreign state can lead to a sharp reaction and this may jeopardize the
negotiation. Obviously, the same respect should shown towards the country represented
by the other side. In short, a good negotiator should display respect for the other side and
the country he represents as he expects respect for his own country and his own person.
8. A good negotiator should always remain calm. Even under provocation,
acting in a collected manner is more likely to lead to results. It is also a mistake to
indulge in theatrics during negotiations.
9. Honesty is also one of the attributes that a good negotiator should have.
Devious behaviour and untrue statements are bound to destroy the mutual trust and
respect that negotiators must have towards one another. If one of the parties loses his
credibility, the outcome of the negotiation will be in doubt.
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10. Finally, a good negotiator must also possess the virtue of patience. In our
day, issues can be terribly complex and can take years to negotiate. To conduct and
finalize the negotiations in a satisfactory manner requires patience. Since one of the
tactics used during negotiations is to wear down the other side, we must try and avoid
this trap.
11. Negotiations are usually conducted through teams or delegations, and
consequently, the coherence and discipline of the delegation is also an important element
for success. Obviously, individual members of a delegation should express their views
when the negotiating position is being formulated. But once the negotiation is underway,
no member of the delegation should speak without the leader's consent and when asked to
speak, he must express the views of the delegation and not his own. A good leader of
delegation is one who get his team to speak with one voice, and if he cannot achieve this,
he should not expect to succeed in the negotiation.
12. Negotiations are either bilateral or multilateral. For both kinds of
negotiations, one should have the attributes and observe the rules summarized earlier.
However, bilateral and multilateral negotiations also have distinct features, and we shall
now deal briefly with these aspects.
13. In a bilateral negotiation, the negotiator, will, in the light of his instructions,
determine his strategy before the negotiation gets underway. In the course of the
negotiation, he will determine his tactics in accordance with the circumstances and the
positions adopted by the other side.
14. A negotiating team must have an initial negotiating position. This initial
position will usually represent our maximum demands from the other side, and it is
understood that in the course of the negotiations, we will gradually retreat from this
position by making concessions against which we shall obtain corresponding concessions
from the other side. If our initial negotiating position is too extreme, the negotiating
process might not get underway because a negotiation requires two positions which,
though different, can ultimately be reconciled.
15. Ideally, we would like to have our initial negotiating position accepted by
the other side. In practice, however, our objective can only be reached through mutual
concessions. It is therefore necessary to determine beforehand the extent to which we
shall make concessions and retreat from our initial position. If the two sides are still
apart after this point has been reached, the negotiation can proceed no further and must
be cut off. The point beyond which we shall not retreat is the final fallback position and
has to be kept as a closely guarded secret. If the other side knows our final fallback
position, it can refuse to come to terms until this point is reached and in this manner it
will be able to obtain the maximum concessions from our side. That is why negotiators
must be very patient and remain unruffled, and must try to convey to the other side the
impression that all the concessions have been made and no more are to be expected. In
doing this, they might even suggest to the other side that to seek further concessions
might result in the negotiation breaking down.
16. If there is a deadlock, one way to get around this is to pass to another
agenda item in order to give each side time to reconsider its position and seek fresh
instructions from its government. Another way of breaking out of a deadlock is to
suspend the negotiations to allow the two sides to discuss the matter informally.
17. Sometimes one side can deliberately produce a deadlock as a tactic for
obtaining further concessions from the other side. However, this tactic has to be used
with some care as it can bring about the breakdown of the negotiation. Occasionally, one
side can resort to dramatic gestures like walking out of the room to wring more
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concessions. However, a delegation that resorts to such tactics must be prepared to
accept the consequences of a breakdown of the negotiation. If it returns to the
negotiating table it might find that its position has been weakened by the theatrics.
18. The strength of a negotiator depends on the amount of concessions he has to
offer. The more concessions he can make, the more he can obtain in return. A
negotiation will make progress as long as concessions can be traded in a balanced
manner. The slightest concession granted to the other side should be taken into account
and its counter concession demanded. Otherwise we might find ourselves making
apparently small concessions to the other side who might be applying “salami tactics”
against us.
Another element that strengthens a negotiator's hand is the military and
economic strength of his country as well as its political stability and its standing in the
world. The negotiator representing a country with these characteristics will be in an
advantageous position and it will be easier for him to obtain concessions.
19. To negotiate complex issues in an orderly manner, delegations often adopt
agendas. The wording of the agenda and the order in which the items are to be taken up
can be of advantage to one side or the other, so the draft agenda should be carefully
considered before adoption.
20. To facilitate and speed up the negotiation of complex issues, negotiators
often decide to set up sub-groups or committees. In these circumstances, it may be useful
to take a firm stand in the committee in order to obtain maximum concessions, and,
failing to obtain the concessions at the committee, make the final concessions at the headof-delegation level.
21. Every successful negotiation should lead to a final document containing the
elements on which agreement has been reached. Good negotiators attach great
importance to the formulation of the final document and make sure that the points on
which agreement has been reached are accurately and clearly reflected in the document to
be adopted. Very often these documents are prepared by drafting committees. It is
important to have experienced negotiators on drafting committees.
22. In this century, multilateral negotiations have acquired great importance and
one must also be familiar with the special features of multilateral diplomacy.
23. Because the number of participants in multilateral negotiations is greater,
the pace of negotiations is usually slower. To conduct the negotiations, it is customary to
elect a bureau usually consisting of a chairman and vice-chairmen. Because the chairman
can, up to a certain extent, give direction to the debate, it is useful to be elected to the
bureau. A good chairman can contribute to a smooth negotiation, while a poor chairman
can be the cause of unnecessary delays and difficulties.
24. In the United Nations and its specialized agencies where practically all
states are represented, like-minded countries have come together to form groups in order
to simplify the proceedings. Through the formation of such groups (e.g. the Western
Group, Latin American Group etc.) negotiations take place among the representatives of
the five or six groups, negotiating positions are adopted and documents prepared on
behalf of the groups, and this helps make the negotiations less cumbersome.
25. In multilateral diplomacy a lot of the work is conducted not in the meeting
room but at unofficial meetings. So a good negotiator should be active at such meetings
if he wants to keep track of what is going on and if he wants to influence the course of
the debate. Such activities require the right kind of personality.
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26. To be successful in multilateral negotiations, one must be thoroughly
familiar with the rules of procedure and prepared to use them to one's own advantage. In
other words, one should be familiar with parliamentary procedure.
27. Al documents relating to the meeting should be read prior to the meeting. If
the documents have not been read, it will be difficult to follow the debate, and statements
made may be inappropriate or irrelevant.
28. In taking the floor at a multilateral negotiation, one should conform to the
usual pattern observed at such meetings and, when necessary, congratulate the chairman,
show appreciation to the Secretariat, and always display moderation in one's criticisms
and avoid offensive remarks.
29. A delegation which wants to give direction to the debate will try to prepare
a paper or a draft resolution. In this manner the delegation can acquire an important
tactical advantage by forcing other delegations to negotiate on the basis of the paper that
it has prepared. In preparing such papers, it is necessary to consult with as many groups
as possible and try to incorporate their views in the document. Such preliminary work
will make it more likely for the document to be adopted.
30. Any document, whether it be a report or a resolution, should be studied
with the greatest care before its adoption to make sure that it does not contain any
passage which might be objectionable to one's government. If this should be the case,
one votes against the resolution or against the particular passage according to the
circumstances or one registers one's oppositions or reservations in the record.
31. From what has been said, it can be gathered that in multilateral diplomacy
experience and personality count for a great deal. That is why many countries employ
officials who have acquired an expertise in these areas. This accounts for the fact that
one tends to see the same faces at different multilateral forums.
8
GRAMMAR
COMPOSITION
9
THE PRACTICAL STYLIST
Sheridan Baker
1981
AGREEMENT- NOUNS AND VERBS
Make Your Verb and Its Subjects Agree
Match singulars with singulars, plurals with plurals. First, find the verb, since
that names the action - sways in the following sentence: “The poplar tree sways in the
wind, dropping yellow leaves on the lawn.” Then ask who or what sways, and you have
your simple subject: tree, a singular noun. Than make sure that your singular subject
matches its singular verb. (A reminder: contrary to nouns, the majority of singular verbs
end in s - the actor performs; actors perform.) You will have little trouble except when
subject and verb are far apart, or when the number of the subject itself is doubtful. (Is
family singular or plural? What about none? What about neither he nor she?)
Subject and verb widely separated
FAULTY: Revision of their views about markets and averages are mandatory.
REVISED: Revision of their views about markets and averages is mandatory.
Avoid the plural constructions that fall between your singular subject and its
verb:
Mistaken plurals
FAULTY: The attention of the students wander out the window.
REVISED: The attention of the students wanders out the window.
FAULTY: The ceiling, as well as the floors, need repair.
REVISED: The ceiling, as well as the floors, needs repair.
Collective nouns (committee, jury, herd, group, family, quartet) are single units
(plural in British usage); give them singular verbs, or plural members:
Collective nouns
FAULTY: Her family were ready.
REVISED: Her family was ready.
FAULTY: The jury have disagreed among themselves.
REVISED: The jurors have disagreed among themselves.
FAULTY: These kind of cookies are delicious.
REVISED: These cookies are delicious.
REVISED: This kind of cookie is delicious.
Watch out for the indefinite pronouns - each, neither, anyone, everyone, no one,
none, everybody, nobody. Each of these is (not are) singular in idea. Give all of them
singular verbs. The same goes for either of them and none of them.
Indefinite pronouns
None of these men is a failure.
None of the class, even the best prepared, wants the test.
Everybody, including the high-school kids, goes to the theater.
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Neither the right nor the left supports the issue.
None of them are is very common. From Shakespeare's time to ours, it has
persisted alongside the more precise none of them is, which seems proper in careful
prose.
When one side of the either-or contrast is plural, you have a problem,
conventionally solved by matching the verb to the nearer noun:
“Either-or”
Either the players or the coach is bad.
Since players is disturbs some feelings for plurality, the best solution is probably
to switch your nouns:
Either the coach or the players are bad.
When both sides of the contrast are plural, the verb is naturally also plural:
Neither the rights of man nor the needs of the commonwealth are relevant to the
question.
Don't let a plural noun in the predicate lure you into a plural verb:
FAULTY: His most faithful cheering section are his family and his girl.
REVISED: His most faithful cheering section is his family and his girl.
REVISED: His family and his girl are his best cheering section.
ALIGNING THE VERBS
Verbs have tense (past, present, future), mood (indicative, imperative,
subjunctive), and voice (active, passive). These can sometimes slip out of line, as your
thought slips, so a review should be useful here:
Use the Tense that Best Expresses Your Idea
Each tense has its own virtues for expressing what you want your sentences to
say. Use the present tense, of course, to express present action: “Now she knows. She is
leaving.” Use the present also for habitual action: “He sees her every day,” and for
describing literary events: “Hamlet finds the king praying, but he is unable to act; he lets
the opportunity slip.” And use the present tense to express timeless facts: “The Greeks
knew the world is round.” The present can also serve for the future: “Classes begin next
Monday.” Apply the past tense to all action before the present:
One day I was watching television when the phone rang; it was the police.
In the center of the cracked facade, the door sagged; rubble lay all around the
foundations.
Use the future tense for action expected after the present:
He will finish it next year.
When he finishes next year,...(The present functioning as future)
He is going to finish it next year. (The “present progressive” is going plus an
infinitive, like to finish, commonly expresses the future)
Use the present perfect tense for action completed (“perfected”) but relevant to
the present moment:
I have gone there before.
He has sung forty concerts.
She has driven there every day.
Use the past perfect tense to express “the past of the past”:
When we arrived (past), they had finished (past perfect).
Similarly, use the future perfect tense to express “the past of the future”:
When we arrive (future), they will have finished (future perfect).
You will have worked thirty hours by December (future perfect).
11
The flare will signal (future) that he has started (perfect).
Set your tense, than move your reader clearly forward or back from it as your
thought requires:
Shifting tenses
Hamlet finds the king praying. He had sworn instant revenge the night before,
but he will achieve it only by accident and about a week later. Here he is unable to act;
he loses his best opportunity.
But avoid mixtures like this: “Hamlet finds the king praying, but he was unable
to act; he let the opportunity slip.” Here, all the verbs should be in the present,
corresponding to finds.
Keep Your Moods in Mind
The indicative mood, which indicates matters of fact (our usual verb and way of
writing), and the imperative mood, which commands (“Do this,” “Keep your moods in
mind”), will give you no trouble. The subjunctive mood, which expresses an action or
condition not asserted as usual fact, occasionally will. The conditional, provisional,
wishful, suppositional ideas expressed by the subjunctive are usually subjoined in
subordinate clauses. The form of the verb is often plural, and often in past tense, even
though the subject is singular, and the condition present or future.
He looked as if he were confident.
If I were you, Ahmet, I would ask her myself.
Had he been sure, he would have said so.
I demand that he make restitution.
I move that the nominations be closed, and that the secretary cast a unanimous
ballot.
Don't let would have seep into your conditional clause from your main clause:
Would have
FAULTY: If he would have known, he never would have said that.
REVISED: If he had known, he never would have said that.
REVISED: Had he known, he never would have said that.
Be careful not to write would of or should of for would have or should have.
Do Not Mix Active and Passive Voice
Avoid misaligning active with passive in the same sentence:
Mixed voices
As he entered the room, voices were heard (he heard).
After they laid out the pattern, electric shears were used (they used electric
shears).
You can also think of this as an awkward shift of subject, from he to voices,
from they to shears. Here is a slippery sample, where the subject stays the same:
Past tense; not passive voice
FAULTY: This plan reduces taxes and has been used successfully in three other
countries.
REVISED: This plan reduces taxes and has been successful in three other
countries.
REVISED: This plan reduces taxes and has proved workable in three other
countries.
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REFERENCE OF PRONOUNS
Match Your Pronouns to What They Stand For
Pronouns stand for (pro)nouns. They refer back to nouns already expressed
(antecedents), or they stand for conceptions (people, things, ideas) already established or
implied, as in “None of them is perfect.” Pronouns must agree with the singular and
plural ideas they represent, and stand clearly as subjects or objects.
When a relative pronoun (who, which, that) is the subject of a clause, it takes a
singular verb if its antecedent is singular, a plural verb if its antecedent is plural:
Müge is the only one of our swimmers WHO has won three gold medals. (The
antecedent is one, not swimmers.)
Müge is one of the best swimmers WHO have ever been on the team. (The
antecedent is swimmers, not one).
Pronouns may stand either as subjects or objects of the action, and their form
changes accordingly.
Use Nominative Pronouns for Nominative Functions
Those pronouns in the predicate that refer back to, or complement, the subject
are troublesome; keep them nominative:
Subjective complement
He discovered that it was I.
It was they who signed the treaty.
Another example is that of the pronoun in apposition with the subject (that is,
positioned near, applied to, and meaning the same thing as, the subject):
Apposition with subject
We students would rather talk than listen.
After than and as, the pronoun is usually the subject of an implied verb:
Implied verb
She is taller than I (am).
You are as bright as he (is).
She loves you as much as I (do).
But note: “She loves you as much as (she loves) me.” Match your pronouns to
what they stand for, subjects for subjects, objects for objects. (But a caution: Use an
objective pronoun as the subject of an infinitive.)
Use a nominative pronoun as subject of a noun clause. This is the trickiest of
pronominal problems, because the subject of the clause also like the object of the main
verb:
FAULTY: The teacher asked whomever did it to step forward.
REVISED: The teacher asked whoever did it to step forward.
Similarly, the parenthetical remarks like I think, he says, and we believe often
make pronouns seem objects when they are actually subjects:
FAULTY: Ayşe is the girl whom I think will succeed.
REVISED: Ayşe is the girl who I think will succeed.
Use Objective Pronouns for Objective Functions
Compound objects give most of the trouble. Try the pronoun by itself: “invited
me,” “sent him,” and so forth. These are all correct:
Compound objects
The mayor invited my wife and me to dinner. (not my wife and I)
Between her and me, an understanding grew.
They sent it to Ali and him.
He would not think of letting us boys help him.
13
Again, see if the pronoun would stand by itself (“letting we”? No “letting us”):
FAULTY: The credit goes to he who tries. (“to he”?)
REVISED: The credit goes to him who tries.
Pronoun in apposition with objects must themselves be objective:
Apposition with object
FAULTY: The mayor complimented us both - Cenk and I.
REVISED: The mayor complimented us both - Cenk and me.
FAULTY: She gave the advice specifically to us - Fatma and I.
REVISED: She gave the advice specifically to us - Fatma and me.
FAULTY: Between us - Murat and I - an understanding grew.
REVISED: Between us - Murat and me - an understanding grew.
FAULTY: He would not think of letting we boys help him.
REVISED: He would not think of letting us boys help him.
Notice this one:
FAULTY: Will you please help Mine and I find the manager?
REVISED: Will you please help Mine and me find the manager?
Mine and me are objective both as objects of the verb help and as subjects of
the shortened infinitive to find. Subjects of infinitives are always in the objective case, as
in “She saw him go”; “She helped him find his keys.”
Use a Possessive Pronoun Before a Gerund
Since gerunds are -ing words used as nouns, the pronouns attached to them must
say what they mean:
FAULTY: She disliked him hunting.
REVISED: She disliked his hunting.
The object of her dislike is not him but hunting.
Keep Your Antecedents Clear
If an antecedent is missing, ambiguous, vague or remote, the pronoun will suffer
from “faulty reference.”
MISSING: In Texas they produce a lot of oil.
REVISED: Texas produces a lot of oil.
AMBIGUOUS: Yetkin smashed into a girl's car who was visiting his sister.
REVISED: Yetkin smashed into the car of a girl visiting his sister.
VAGUE: Because Nursel had never spoken before an audience, she was afraid
of it.
REVISED: Because Nursel had never spoken before an audience, she was
afraid.
REMOTE: The castle was built in 1573. The rooms and furnishings are
carefully kept up, but the entrance is now guarded by a coin-fed turnstile. It still belongs
to the Earl.
REVISED: The castle, which still belongs to the Earl, was built in 1573. The
rooms and furnishings are carefully kept up, but the entrance is now guarded by a coinfed turnstile.
Give an Indefinite or General Antecedent a Singular Pronoun
FAULTY: Each of the students hoped to follow in their teacher's footsteps.
REVISED: Each of the students hoped to follow in his (or his or her) teacher's
footsteps.
REVISED: All of the students hoped to follow in their teacher's footsteps.
(Here, we have a single class.)
14
FAULTY: If the government dares to face the new philosophy, they should
declare themselves.
REVISED: If the government dares to face the new philosophy, it should declare
itself.
Keep Person and Number Consistent
Don't slip from person to person (I to they):
FAULTY: They have reached an age when you should know better.
REVISED: They have reached an age when they should know better.
FAULTY: A motion picture can improve upon a book, but they usually do not.
REVISED: A motion picture can improve upon a book, but it usually does not.
MODIFIERS MISUSED AND MISPLACED
Keep Your Adjectives and Adverbs Straight
The adjective sometimes wrongly crowds out the adverb: “He played a real
conservative game.” And the adverb sometimes steals the adjective's place, especially
when the linking verb looks transitive but is not (feels, looks, tastes, smells), making the
sense wrong: “He feels badly” (adverb) means incompetence, not misery. The cure is to
modify your nouns with adjectives, and everything else with adverbs:
He played a really conservative game. (Adverb)
He feels bad. (Adjective)
This tastes good. (Adjective)
I feel good. (Adjective - spirit)
I feel well. (Adjective - health)
This works well. (Adverb)
Some words serve both as adjectives and adverbs: early, late, near, far, hard,
only, little, right, wrong, straight, well, better, best, fast.
Think little of little things.
Near is a hard case, serving as an adjective (the near future) and as an adverb of
place (near the barn), and then also trying to serve for nearly, the adverb of degree:
FAULTY: We are nowhere near knowledgeable enough.
REVISED: We are not nearly knowledgeable enough.
FAULTY: It was a near treasonous statement.
REVISED: It was a nearly treasonous statement.
Slow has a long history as an adverb, but slowly is used more often. Notice that
adverbs usually go after, and adjectives before:
The slow freight train went slowly.
Make Your Comparisons Complete
Ask yourself “Than what?” - when you find your sentences ending with an
adjective or an adverb:
FAULTY: The western plains are flatter.
REVISED: The western plains are flatter than those east of the Mississippi.
FAULTY: He plays more skillfully.
REVISED: He plays more skillfully than most boys his age.
FAULTY: Murat told him more than Nigar.
REVISED: Murat told him more than he told Nigar.
FAULTY: His income is lower than a busboy.
REVISED: His income is lower than a busboy's.
Do Not Let Your Modifiers Squint
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Some modifiers squint in two directions at once. Place them to modify one
thing only.
FAULTY: They agreed when both sides ceased fire to open negotiations.
REVISED: They agreed to open negotiations when both sides ceased fire.
FAULTY: Several delegations we know have failed.
REVISED: We know that several delegations have failed.
FAULTY: They hoped to try thoroughly to understand.
REVISED: They hoped to try to understand thoroughly.
FAULTY: He resolved to dependably develop plans.
REVISED: He resolved to develop dependable plans.
Do Not Let Your Modifiers or References Dangle
The -ing words (the gerunds and participles) tend to slip loose from the sentence
and dangle, referring to nothing or the wrong thing.
FAULTY: Going home, the walk was slippery. (participle)
REVISED: Going home, I found the walk slippery.
FAULTY: When getting out of bed, his toe hit the dresser. (gerund)
REVISED: When getting out of bed, he hit his toe on the dresser.
Infinitive phrases also can dangle badly:
FAULTY: To think clearly, some logic is important.
REVISED: To think clearly, you should learn some logic.
Any phrase or clause may dangle:
FAULTY: When only a freshman (phrase), Jim's history teacher inspired him.
REVISED: When Jim was only a freshman, his history teacher inspired him.
FAULTY: After he had taught thirty years (clause), the average student still
seemed average.
REVISED: After he had taught thirty years, he found the average student still
average.
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation marks the pauses and emphases with which the speaker points his
meaning. Loose punctuators forget what every good writer knows: that even silent
reading produces a voice in our heads and meaning of language depend on what the
written word makes us hear. Commas, semicolons, colons, periods, and other
punctuation transcribe our meaningful pauses to the printed page.
THE PERIOD: MARKING THE SENTENCE
A period marks a sentence, a subject completed in its verb:
“She walked.”
A phrase - which lacks a verb, though it may contain a verb form - subordinates
this idea, making it depend on some other main clause:
“While walking, she thought.”
A subordinate clause does the same, making the whole original sentence
subordinate:
“While she walked, she thought.”
Take special care not to break off a phrase or a clause, with a period, making a
fragment that looks like a sentence but is not, and do not use the comma as a period.
FAULTY: She dropped the cup. Which had cost twenty liras.
16
REVISED: She dropped the cup, which had cost twenty liras.
FAULTY: He swung furiously, the ball sailed into the lake.
REVISED: He swung furiously. The ball sailed into the lake.
THE COMMA
Here are the four basic commas:
1. The introducer - after introductory phrases and clauses.
2. The coordinator - between “sentences” joined by and, but, or, nor, yet, so,
for.
3. The inserter - a pair around any inserted word or remark.
4. The linker - when adding words, phrases, or clauses.
1. The Introducer. A comma after every introductory word or phrase makes
your writing clearer:
Indeed, the idea failed.
After the first letter, she wrote again.
In the autumn of the same year, he went to Istanbul.
Without the introductory comma, your reader frequently expects something else:
After the first letter she wrote, she ...
In the autumn of the same year he went to Istanbul, he ...
But beware! What looks like an introductory phrase or clause may actually be
the subject of the sentence and should take no comma. The comma in the following
sentences should be removed:
That handsome young man in the red shirt, is my student.
The idea that you should report every observation, is wrong.
The realization that we must be slightly dishonest to be truly kind, comes to all
of us sooner or later.
2. The Coordinator. Between “sentences” joined by coordinate conjunctions
you often see the comma omitted when your two clauses are short: “He hunted and she
fished.” But nothing is wrong with “He hunted, and she fished.”
A
comma tells
your reader that another subject and predicate are coming:
He hunted the hills and valleys.
He hunted the hills, and she fished in the streams.
She was naughty but nice.
She was naughty, but that is not our business.
Wear your shirt or coat.
Wear your coat, or you will catch cold.
Of course, you may use a comma in all the examples above if your sense
demands it.
3. The Inserter. Put a pair of commas around every inserted word, phrase, or
clause. When you cut a sentence in two to insert something necessary, you need to tie
off both ends, or your sentence will die:
When he packs his bag, however he goes. (,however,)
The car, an ancient Anadol is still running. (,an ancient Anadol,)
April 10, 1996 is agreeable as a date for final payment. (,1996,)
I wish , Mustafa you would do it. (,Mustafa,)
Parenthetical insertions need a pair of commas:
The case, nevertheless, was closed.
She will see, if she has any sense at all, that he is right.
17
Ahmet on the other hand, may be wrong.
4. The Linker. This is the usual one, linking on additional phrases, and
afterthoughts:
They went home, having overstayed their welcome.
The book is too long, overloaded with examples.
It also links items in series: words, phrases, or clauses in a series
He went home, he went upstairs, and he could remember nothing.
SEMICOLON AND COLON
Use the semicolon only where you could also use a period, unless desperate.
Confusion comes from the belief that the semicolon is either a weak colon or strong
comma. It is most effective as neither. It is best in pulling together and contrasting two
independent clauses that could stand alone as sentences:
The dress accents the feminine. The pants suit speaks for freedom.
The dress accents the feminine; the pants suit speaks for freedom.
A wrong semicolon frequently makes a fragment:
The play opens on a dark street in Ankara; one streetlight giving the only
illumination.
The geese begin their migration in late August or early September; some
groups having started a week or so earlier.
Each of those semicolons should have been a comma.
The colon signals the meaning to go ahead. It introduces a series, the clarifying
detail, the illustrative example, and the formal quotation:
The following players will start: Oğuz, Tarık, Erol, and Aykut.
He lived for only one thing: money.
In the end, it was useless: Ayşe really was too young.
We remember Sherman's words: “War is hell.”
SPELLING
The dictionary is your best friend in spelling, but three principles can help:
1. Letters represent sounds. Simply sound out the letters: envIRONment and
goverNment and FebRUary. Of course, you will be note that some words are not
pronounced as spelled: Wednesday pronounced “Wenzday,” for instance.
2. This is the old rule of i before e, and its famous exceptions:
I before e
Except after c,
Or when sounded like a
As in neighbor and weigh.
3. Most big words, following the Latin or French from which they came, spell
their sounds letter for letter. Knowing origins can help a lot. The biggest help comes
from learning the common foreign prefixes.
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COMMON MISTAKES IN ENGLISH
T.J.Fitikides
1963
PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN WORDS
Note carefully the prepositions used after the following words:
accuse of
good at
accustomed to
guard against
afraid of
guilty of
aim at
independent of
angry with, at
indifferent to
arrive at, in
insist on
ashamed o
interested in
believe in
jealous of
benefit by
look at
boast of
married to
careful of
pleased with
complain of
prefer to
composed of
proud of
conform to
related to
congratulate on
repent of
consist of
satisfied with
cure of
similar to
depend on
succeed in
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deprive of
die of
different from
doubt of, about
dressed in
fail in
full of
superior to
sure of
surprised at
suspect of
tired with, of
translate into
warn of
THE USE OF THE GERUND
The gerund (and not the infinitive) should be used:
1. After prepositions.
EXAMPLES: He worked without stopping. She played instead of working.
2. After words which regularly take a preposition, such as fond of, insist on,
tired of, succeed in.
EXAMPLES: I am tired of doing the work again. He succeeded in killing the
tiger.
3. After certain verbs, such as avoid, enjoy, finish, stop, risk, excuse.
EXAMPLES: Boys enjoy playing football. The wind has stopped blowing.
4. After the adjectives busy and worth.
EXAMPLES: He was busy writing a book. This date is worth remembering.
5. After certain phrases, such as it’s no use, it’s no good, I can’t help, would you
mind, look forward to.
EXAMPLES: I think it’s no use trying again. I can’t help feeling angry
about it.
The gerund or the infinitive can be used after certain verbs, such as begin, like,
dislike, hate, love, prefer.
EXAMPLE: He began to talk or he began talking.
THE USE OF CERTAIN TENSES
1. The Simple Present is used for habitual actions, while the Present Continuous
is used for actions taking place at the present moment.
EXAMPLES: I read the newspaper every day. I am reading English (now).
2. The Simple Past is used when a definite time or date is mentioned, while the
Present Perfect is used when no time is mentioned.
EXAMPLES: I wrote my exercise last night. I have written my exercise.
3. Habitual actions in the past are expressed either by the Simple Past or by the
phrase used to.
EXAMPLE: I went (or I used to go) to the cinema every weekend last year.
NOTE: The Past Continuos (I was going) is not used for a past habitual action,
but for an action in the past continuing at the time another action took place: as, “I was
going to the cinema when I met him.
4. If the action began in the past and is still continuing in the present, the only
correct tense to use is the Present Perfect.
EXAMPLE: I have been in this class for two months.
5. Be very careful NOT to use the future but the Present tense in a clause of
time or condition, if the verb in the principal clause is in the future.
EXAMPLE: I shall visit Atatürk’s Mausoleum when I go (or if I go) to
Ankara.
NEGATIVES
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The negative is generally expressed in two ways:
1. By putting not after the verb. This method is used with only twenty-one
verbs. Here is a list of them:
am, is, are, was, were; have, has, had; shall, should; will, would; can, could;
may, might; must; need; dare; ought; used.
EXAMPLES: I am not ready. You must not do that. He cannot write well. He
ought not to go.
2. By using do, does, did, with not and the present infinitive (without to). This
method is used with all the verbs except those twenty-one given above. The word order
is:
SUBJECT + do (does, did) + not + INFINITIVE
EXAMPLES: I do not go there very often. He does not teach English. They
did not see the game.
In conversation, not is often shortened no n’t. Thus we say don’t for do not etc.
Negation may also be expressed by other words of negative meaning; no,
nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere.
EXAMPLE: They know nothing or They do not know anything.
THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR
1. With the pronouns he, she, it, or any singular noun, the verb in the present
tense takes a special ending, -s or -es: he works, she sings, it stops, the sun rises.
2. When the first person of the verb ends in s, x, ch, sh, or o, the third person
singular takes -es:
I watch
I finish
I fix
I go
he watches
he finishes
he fixes
he goes
3. When the first person of the verb ends in -y with a consonant before it, the
third person singular is formed by changing y into ies:
I carry
I study
I fly
he carries
he studies he flies
NOTE: If there is a vowel before the -y, we add only s for the third person
singular: he plays, he enjoys, he obeys.
4. A few verbs are irregular in the third person singular:
I am
I have
I do
I say
he is
he has
he does
he says
5. The verbs shall, will, can, may, must, and ought do NOT change their form in
the third person singular:
I shall
I will
I can
I may
I must
he shall
he will
he can
he may he must
REMEMBER: Like the plural of nouns, the third person singular of verbs
in the present tense takes -s or -es.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The indefinite article is used:
1. Before every common noun in the singular, if it is not preceded by the or
some such word as this, that, my, his: as, “I bought a new book” (not : I bought new
book).
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2. Before the words hundred and thousand: as, “A hundred soldiers were in the
camp.”
3. After the verb to be when a common noun in the singular follows: as,
“Mary’s father is a lawyer.”
4. In certain phrases: as, to make a noise, a mistake, a fortune, an impression;
to have a headache, a pain, a cold, a cough.
The indefinite article is not used:
1. Before singular nouns that are not used in the plural, such as advice,
information, work, furniture, bread: as, “He gave me good advice” (not.: a good advice).
2. After the phrase “kind of” or “sort of”: as, “What kind of pen do you want?”
A, AN or ONE
In many languages the numeral “one” is used instead of the indefinite article
“a” or “an.” This is not so in English. “One man went into one shop” ought to be “A
man went into a shop. “One” is to be used only when the number is emphatic: as, “One
swallow does not make a summer.”
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
As a rule, nouns in English take no article when used in a general sense, but if
they are used in a particular sense the article is needed. Note the difference in the use or
omission of the article:
1. With plural nouns:
Horses are strong animals.
The horses in the field belong to the farmer.
2. With abstract nouns:
Wisdom is a great virtue.
The wisdom of Solomon was famous.
3. With material nouns:
Water is necessary to life.
The water in the kitchen is hot.
4. With days, months, and seasons:
Summer is a hot season.
The summer of last year was very hot.
5. With names of languages:
English is spoken all over the world.
The English spoken by him is not correct.
6. With names of meals:
Breakfast is at eight o’clock.
The breakfast I had this morning was heavy.
7. With names of colors:
Blue is my favorite color.
The blue in that picture has faded.
QUESTIONS
Questions can be formed in three ways:
1. By putting the verb before the subject. This method is used only with
twenty-one verbs. (See: Negatives)
EXAMPLES: Are you ready? Can you write well? Will he come
tomorrow? May I go now?
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2. By using do, does, did, followed by the subject and then the infinitive
(without to). This form is used with all verbs except the twenty-one given above. The
word order is:
Do (does, did) + SUBJECT + INFINITIVE
EXAMPLES: Do you come here every day? Does the boy learn English? Did
they go to the theater?
3. By using question words. The question word always begins the question, but
the verb must be put before the subject as in questions of types (1) and (2).
EXAMPLES: Why are you late? When did you come? Where is it? Whom
did you see? Which book do you want?
If the question word is the subject of the sentence, the verb is put after the
subject: as, “Who wrote the letter? Whose dog bit the man?”
THE CORRECT ORDER OF WORDS
(1) SUBJECT (2) VERB (3) OBJECT
1. The object is usually placed immediately after the verb.
EXAMPLE: I speak English very well.
2. The indirect object usually comes before the direct object without a
preposition.
EXAMPLE: I gave him the money.
3. An expression of time comes after a expression of place.
EXAMPLE: We stayed there all day.
4. Adverbs of time and degree, such as always, often, never, nearly, hardly,
scarcely, are placed before the verb, or between the auxiliary and the verb.
EXAMPLES: I never see that man; or I have never seen that man.
NOTE: But with the verb to be the adverb is placed after the verb: as, “He is
never late.”
5. In indirect questions the subject comes first and then the verb.
EXAMPLE: I want to know where they went.
6. In compound verbs with two auxiliaries, not is placed after the first one.
EXAMPLE: He could not have been there.
7. In the negative infinitive, not comes before to.
EXAMPLE: I told him not to go there.
THE USE OF CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions of place:
TO and AT
TO is used for movement from one place to another.
EXAMPLE: I walk to school every day.
AT is used to denote position or rest.
EXAMPLE: He is waiting at the door.
IN and INTO
IN denotes position or rest inside something.
EXAMPLE: The pencil is in the box.
INTO denotes movement towards the inside of something.
EXAMPLE: They walk into the room.
Prepositions of time:
AT, ON, IN
AT is used with the exact time.
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EXAMPLE: He came at 8 o’clock in the morning.
ON is used with days and dates.
EXAMPLES: On Sunday we go to church. My birthday is on the third of
December.
IN is used with a period of time.
EXAMPLE: In summer the weather is warm.
SINGULAR AND PLURAL
1. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding -s or -es to the singular:
book - books etc.
2. The following nouns have irregular plurals:
man - men
woman - women
child - children
ox - oxen
tooth - teeth
foot - feet
goose - geese
mouse - mice
3. Some nouns are not used in the plural: as, advice, information, knowledge,
news, progress, work, money, luggage, furniture, scenery, machinery.
NOTE: When only one thing is meant, we say a piece of advice etc.
4. Some nouns are not used in the singular: as, people, riches, clothes, wages,
trousers, scissors, spectacles.
NOTE: Names of things consisting of two parts are often used with the word
pair: as, a pair of trousers etc.
5. Some nouns have the same form for the singular as for the plural: as, sheep,
deer, salmon.
MATRICULATION ENGLISH GRAMMAR OF MODERN ENGLISH
USAGE
Llewellyn Tipping
1940
SOME HINTS ON ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
Analysis of sentences will not prove a difficult task, if we read our sentences
carefully and exercise our common sense. The following hints may prove useful:
1. COUNT THE FINITE VERBS:
All other parts of the verb, except the infinitive (including participles
and gerunds), are spoken of as FINITE, since they are limited by person and number.
Each clause has a finite verb of its own, and therefore, if we know the
number of finite verbs in a sentence, we shall at once be able to say how many clauses
it contains.
“I KNOW quite well what you ARE THINKING about, as you SIT there
reading that book your father GAVE you.”
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We have in the above sentence four finite verbs and therefore four
clauses.
2. THE FINITE VERB IS SOMETIMES OMITTED:
Such omitted verbs must also be counted in, when reckoning the total
number of clauses.
“He DOES not THINK so, nor I either.”
When we supply the omitted verb the sentence becomes:
“He DOES not THINK so, nor do I THINK so either.”
In the above sentence there are, we see, two finite verbs, and therefore two
clauses.
3. FIND OUT WHICH IS THE MAIN CLAUSE:
“I SAW the man running along the road, waving his hands about, and
shouting in a loud voice.”
In this sentence there are several verbs, but only one finite verb, SAW.
The sentence is therefore a simple sentence.
“He TOLD us that any boy who CAME into school after the bell HAD
RUNG WOULD BE KEPT in when the other boys WENT out to play.”
In this sentence we have five clauses but only one of them, the one
containing the finite verb TOLD is the main clause.
4. PAY ATTENTION TO THE CONNECTIVE WORDS:
These are usually of great help in assisting us to decide which clauses are
subordinate and which are not.
“He sat down because he was very tired.”
BECAUSE introduces a subordinate clause.
5. LOOK OUT FOR THE SUBJECT OF EACH VERB:
To do this we ask the question WHO? or WHAT?
“He said they could go home.”
Who said? HE (Subject). Who could go home? THEY (Subject).
6. FIND OUT THE WORK EACH CLAUSE IS DOING:
“He ran away BECAUSE HE WAS AFRAID.” (Qualifies a verb)
“He is as PROUD AS A PEACOCK (IS PROUD).” (Qualifies an
adjective)
“I will come as QUICKLY AS I CAN.” (Qualifies an adverb)
7. DIVIDE YOUR SENTENCE INTO SUBJECT AND PREDICATE:
“The victorious soldiers (Subject) made him emperor (Predicate) .”
8. ELLIPSES AND OMISSIONS MUST BE SUPPLIED:
“Who steals my purse steals trash.” We must supply the pronoun HE
before the word WHO.
“She swam the channel in faster time than the man.” We must supply the
words SWAM IT after the noun MAN.
9. QUOTATIONS ARE TO BE TREATED AS SINGLE WORDS:
In the sentence -Shakespeare said “All the world's a stage.”- we first
analyze the quotation as object to the verb SAID. Then, if we like, we can take the
quotation itself and analyze it as a separate sentence.
10. PARENTHETIC PHRASES AND CLAUSES:
“This is the man who, I THINK, will show us the way.”
“I have not yet, TO TELL THE TRUTH, made up my mind.”
“He is - I SAY IT WITH SHAME - a complete fool.”
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Each of the phrases and clauses in capitals is independent of the rest of the
sentence and is to be analyzed separately.
Some care is needed in writing such sentences:
“This is the man who, I BELIEVE, have been in the house.”
“This is the man WHOM I BELIEVE to have been in the house.”
In the first example, if we regard, I BELIEVE, as parenthetic, and therefore
independent of the rest of the sentence, it is clear that the verb BELIEVE does not
govern any word in the rest of the sentence. However, in the second example the
phrase, I BELIEVE, is no longer parenthetic but an integral part of the whole
sentence.
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES
The same idea can be expressed in many different ways, and anyone who
wishes to write clearly and easily should be acquainted with some of the different
forms which a sentence may take.
1. INTERCHANGE OF QUESTIONS AND STATEMENTS:
Statements can often be put in the form of a question with little or no
change of meaning.
STATEMENT: He is not likely to do such a thing.
QUESTION: Is he likely to do such a thing?
Such questions are usually known as RHETORICAL QUESTIONS; they
do not require an answer, but are merely devices for putting a statement in a more
striking and emphatic way.
2. INTERCHANGE OF AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE:
An affirmative statement can often be put into a negative form, and vice
versa, without changing the meaning.
AFFIRMATIVE: John is taller than James.
NEGATIVE: James is not so tall as John.
3. EXCLAMATORY AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCES:
A sentence may be changed from the exclamatory form into the assertive
form, and vice versa.
EXCLAMATORY: How wonderfully he has done it!
ASSERTIVE: He has done it very wonderfully.
4. INTERCHANGE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON:
One degree of comparison can often be changed for another without
altering the sense.
POSITIVE: No other boy in the class is so TALL AS Ali.
COMPARATIVE: Ali is TALLER than any other boy in the class.
SUPERLATIVE: Ali is the TALLEST boy in the class.
5. SUBSTITUTION OF ONE PART OF SPEECH FOR ANOTHER:
Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs may often be substituted for
another in a sentence without altering the sense.
a) ADJ.: He was KIND to me.
ADV.: He behaved KINDLY to me.
NOUN: He treated me with KINDNESS.
b) VERB: He succeeded in his efforts.
ADJ.: His efforts were SUCCESSFUL.
ADV.: He worked SUCCESSFULLY.
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6. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INTERCHANGED:
Active and passive forms can often be interchanged without altering the
sense.
ACT.: The teacher HEARD the lesson.
PASS.: The lesson WAS HEARD by the teacher.
7. THE ADVERB “TOO”:
Sentences containing the adverb “TOO” can be written in various ways,
by getting rid of the word “TOO” and substituting other forms.
a) He is TOO proud to learn.
b) He is SO proud THAT he will not learn.
c) He is OVER proud to learn.
d) He is VERY proud therefore he will not learn.
e) His pride is SUCH that he will not learn.
f) He is so EXCESSIVELY proud that he will not learn.
g) His pride FORBIDS him to learn.
h) His pride is an OBSTACLE to his learning.
i) IF he were not so proud he would be willing to learn.
8. SIMPLE SENTENCES EXPANDED INTO DOUBLE AND COMPLEX
SENTENCES:
Simple sentences may be changed into double and complex sentences by
taking a word or a phrase and expanding it into a clause.
SIMPLE: By running he caught the train.
DOUBLE: He ran AND caught the train.
COMPLEX: He caught the train BECAUSE he ran.
9. DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE SENTENCES INTO SIMPLE:
Double and multiple sentences can often be more conveniently and concisely
written in the form of simple sentences.
DOUBLE: He took his stick and set off.
SIMPLE: Taking his stick, he set off.
MULTIPLE: He took his stick, called his dog and set off.
SIMPLE: Taking his stick and calling his dog, he set off.
10. COMPLEX SENTENCES INTO SIMPLE:
COMPLEX: The money that was lost has been found.
SIMPLE: The lost money has been found.
COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS OF SENTENCES
Two or more sentences can often be conveniently combined into one.
1. TWO OR MORE SIMPLE SENTENCES COMBINED INTO ONE
SIMPLE SENTENCE:
This can be done by using a PARTICIPLE:
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: He heard a noise. The train was
approaching. He began to run.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: Hearing the noise of the approaching train, he
began to run.
By using a PREPOSITION with a noun or gerund:
27
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: He worked for many days. He did not
sleep. He did not eat.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: He worked for many days without sleeping
or eating.
By using ABSOLUTE PHRASES:
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: Parliament was adjourned. The session
was over. The members dispersed.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: Parliament being adjourned, and the session
(being) at an end, the members dispersed.
By using an INFINITIVE:
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: He has a house. He wishes to sell it. He
wishes to rent it.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: He has a house to sell or rent.
By using ADVERBS or ADVERB PHRASES:
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: He escaped. This was lucky for him. This
was lucky for us.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: Luckily for him and for us he escaped.
By using a NOUN or a PHRASE:
THREE SIMPLE SENTENCES: Mr.Jones is here. He is my friend. He is
the owner of the house.
ONE SIMPLE SENTENCE: My friend Mr.Jones, the owner of the house,
is here.
2.
TWO OR MORE SIMPLE SENTENCES COMBINED INTO ONE
DOUBLE OR MULTIPLE SENTENCE:
Two or more simple sentences may often be conveniently combined into
a double or a multiple sentence by using co-ordinating conjunctions.
SIMPLE: Ali was present. Veli was present.
DOUBLE: Both Ali AND Veli were present.
3. TWO OR MORE SIMPLE SENTENCES COMBINED INTO ONE
COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Two or more simple sentences may be combined into a complex sentence by
using a NOUN CLAUSE:
SIMPLE: He did it. I do not know how.
COMPLEX: I do not know how he did it.
By using an ADJECTIVE CLAUSE:
SIMPLE: This is the girl. She won the prize.
COMPLEX: This is the girl who won the prize.
By using an ADVERB CLAUSE:
SIMPLE: I left off. He began to read.
COMPLEX: He began to read when I left off.
4. TWO OR MORE COMPLEX SENTENCES COMBINED INTO ONE:
THREE COMPLEX SENTENCES: He is a man who speaks fluently. He
is a man who speaks well. He speaks as if it were the easiest thing in the world to speak
well.
ONE COMPLEX SENTENCE: He is a man who speaks fluently and as if it
were the easiest thing in the world to speak well.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
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When Turning the DIRECT into the INDIRECT form certain
grammatical changes have to be made.
(Before we give our rules, we may note that the REPORTING VERB - the
verb used to introduce the Indirect Form - is usually in the PAST TENSE:
HE SAID that he would obey at once.
Sometimes, though far less often, it is in the PRESENT TENSE:
HE SAYS that he will obey me at once.)
RULE 1. Present and future tenses
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, all PRESENT and FUTURE
tenses in the Direct Form must be changed into the corresponding past tenses in the
Indirect Form.
DIRECT: I am ready.
INDIRECT: He said that he was ready.
D: I am writing.
I: He said that he was writing.
D: I have seen him.
I: He said that he had seen him.
D: I shall be ready.
I: He said that he would be ready.
RULE 2. Past tenses
When the reporting verb is in the PAST TENSE, all past tenses in the
Direct Form either (1) remain in the past tense, or (2) are changed into the past perfect
tense.
(1) D: I went home after school.
I: He said that he went home after school.
(2) D: In the last match I scored twenty points.
I: He said that in the last match he had scored twenty
points.
RULE 3.
When the reporting verb is in the PRESENT or the FUTURE TENSE the
tenses of the verbs in the Direct Form remain the same in the Indirect Form.
PRESENT
D: I am coming.
I: He says that he is coming.
D: I have been sleeping.
I: He says that he has been sleeping.
FUTURE
D: You are quite right.
I: He will say that you are quite right.
D: The man has escaped.
I: He will say that the man has escaped.
(Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the 1st and 2nd persons, are all
turned into the 3rd person in the Indirect Form.
D: I shall take MY book.
I: He said that HE would take HIS book.
D: YOU know YOUR duty.
I: He said that THEY (HE) knew THEIR (HIS) duty.
To turn the INDIRECT form into the DIRECT is not difficult. The main
thing is to put ourselves into the position of the speaker, and to give each sentence as
if ourselves were saying it.
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I: He said that he would do so gladly.
D: I will do so gladly.
I: He told him to go home.
D: Go home.
The rules used when turning the Direct into the Indirect Form are to be
reversed when changing Indirect into the Direct.
I: He said he WOULD bear it in mind.
D: I SHALL bear it in mind.
I: He asked him when he WOULD come to his house.
D: When WILL you come to my house?
SYNTAX
Syntax has to do with the arrangement of words. In syntax we have to deal
with three main points:
1. The arrangement or order of words.
2. Concord, or agreement of words in sentences.
3. Government, or the dependence of one word upon another.
NORMAL ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE
The normal order of words in an affirmative sentence is
1. Subject (The man)
2. Predicate (killed)
3. Object (the tiger)
There is nothing in the form of the nouns MAN and TIGER to show which
is the subject, and which is the object. If we change the order of the sentence and say
The tiger killed the man
the word TIGER becomes the subject, and the word MAN the object, with
the result that the sense is completely changed.
We therefore see at once, from this simple illustration, that WORD ORDER is a
matter of great importance in English.
We should note that the subject follows the verb:
(1) In QUESTIONS: Do YOU want me?
(2) When the verb is in the IMPERATIVE MOOD: RUN, SILLY BOY, or
you will be late.
(3) In such phrases as, SAID HE; SAID I etc.
(4) When the sentence begins with THERE, used as an introductory
word: THERE ARE SOME who believe this.
(5) In certain uses of the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: Had he told me so...
(6) When the sentence begins with an EMPHATIC ADVERB: HARDLY
HAD HE uttered a word...
(7) When a sentence begins with a word, or group of words, displaced
from its normal position for the sake of
emphasis: A house in which LIVED AN
OLD WOMAN.
(8) In notices where the verb is put first for the sake of emphasis: TO BE
SOLD, a six-roomed house.
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(9) In poetry, to suit the meter and rhyme: SPOKE HE then in
accents
tender.
The object sometimes precedes the verb:
(1) When it is a RELATIVE PRONOUN: The man WHOM you admire.
(2) When it is an INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN or and INTERROGATIVE
ADJECTIVE: WHAT shall we do? WHICH PEN will you have?
(3) When it is placed before the verb for the sake of
emphasis: FIRES
I have seen before, but nothing like this.
(4) In poetry, for the sake of rhyme and meter: That thence the royal actor
borne. THE TRAGIC SCAFFOLD might adorn.
Emphasis may be obtained by shifting the order of words in a sentence:
I detest WORMS - WORMS I detest.
The drum went BANG - BANG went the drum.
We may also notice that the sense may be completely altered by changing
the order of words in it:
H ALONE went - He went ALONE.
She bought a CHEAP dress - She bought a dress CHEAP.
The CAT killed the MOUSE - The MOUSE killed the CAT.
FORMATION OF WORDS
1. New words are formed from existing words, and are usually classified as
COMPOUND WORDS,
PRIMARY DERIVATIVES and
SECONDARY
DERIVATIVES.
Compound Words
2. A compound word is formed by joining two or more words together to
form a new word.
3. Compound nouns are formed in the following ways:
a) Noun and noun:
Oil-lamp, lamp-oil, moonlight, armchair, postman, railway, airman,
manservant, lion-tamer, football, milestone.
NOTE: There is no very clear rule for the use of the hyphen.
Generally
speaking, when the compound has grown
familiar through long use, the hyphen
is dropped.
b) Adjective and noun:
Madman,
stronghold,
nobleman, midday, sweetheart, dumb-bell,
quicksand, quicksilver.
c) Verb and noun:
Telltale,
pickpocket, cutthroat, stopgap, makeshift, breakfast,
breakwater.
d) Gerund and noun:
Walking-stick, blotting-paper, stepping-stone, drawing-room.
e) Adverb and verb:
Income, output, intake, offspring, outbreak, outlook, outfit, upstart.
f) Verb and adverb:
Farewell, drawback, go-between, send-off, stand-still, walk-over.
g) Preposition or adverb and noun:
Afternoon, overcoat, inside, downfall, forethought, afterthought.
4. Compound adjectives are formed by joining together:
a) Noun and adjective:
31
Headstrong, homesick, seasick, worldwide, lifelong, high-brow, careless.
b) Noun and past participle:
Heart-broken, tongue-tied, ice-bound, handmade.
c) Noun and present participle:
Man-eating,heart-rending, self-sacrificing, time-serving, money-making.
d) Adverb and participle:
Outspoken, long-suffering, downhearted, downtrodden, wellbred, illfamed.
5. Compound verbs are formed by joining:
a) Noun and verb:
Earmark, typewrite, waylay.
b) Adjective and verb:
Whitewash, dry-clean, safeguard.
c) Adverb and verb:
Ill-use, overdo, overhear, undersell, underbid, overtake, overturn, upset,
undergo, understand, outdo, inlay.
Primary Derivatives
6. Primary derivatives are usually formed by making some change in the body
of the existing word:
a) Nouns from verbs:
Bit from bite
Drove “ drive
Ditch “ dig
Gap “ gape
Bond “ bind.
b) Nouns from adjectives:
Heat from hot
Pride “ proud
Dolt “ dull.
c) Adjectives form nouns and verbs:
Wise from wit
Blank “ blink.
d) Verbs from nouns:
Bleed from blood
Feed “ food
Tell “ tale
Halve “ half.
e) Verbs from adjectives:
Fill from full
Heal “ hale.
f) Transitive from intransitive verbs:
Set from sit
Lay “ lie
Fell “ fall
Raise “ rise
.
Secondary Derivatives
7. Words formed by the addition of PREFIXES and SUFFIXES are usually
32
known as Secondary Derivatives.
English Prefixes
A- (Meaning off, up, from): Abroad, along, among, again, ashamed.
A- (On, in): Aboard, ashore, astir, away.
Be- (By): Before, behind, befriend, befit, bestir, bedeck, bestow.
By- (On the side): Bystander, bypath, byword.
For- (With an intensive or negative meaning): Forbear, forgive, forswear,
forbid.
Fore- (Before): Forecast, foretell, foresee, forehead, forestall, foreground.
Gain- (Against): Gainsay.
In-: Into, insight, income, inland, inlet.
Mis- (Wrongly): Mistake, mislay, misjudge, mislead, misdeed.
N- (Negative): Never, nor, neither.
On-: Onset, onslaught.
Out-: Outlook,
outcast, outcome, outbreak, outcry, outlet, outshine,
outweigh, outlive.
Over-: Overflow, overhear, overcoat, overdue, overlook, over-eat.
To-: To-day, to-night, together.
Un- (Not): Untruth, Unripe, unreal, unwise, untold, undo, untie, unlock.
Under-; Undergo, understand, underneath, underbid.
Up-: Upright, uphold, upward, upon, upset.
Well- (In good state): Welcome, welfare, well-being.
With- (Against, back): Withdraw, withstand, withhold.
NOTE: Un (in the negative sense) and mis (in the sense of bad or
wrongly) are the only English prefixes that are still freely applied to form new words.
Latin Prefixes
A-, Ab-, Abs- (From): Avert, abuse, abstain.
Ad- (To): Admit, adjoin, adhere, adopt.
NOTE: The D of AD is often assimilated with the first consonant of
the word: Account, affect, aggravate, allege, ammunition, approve, assent,
attempt, arrogant, annual etc.
Ambi-, Amb-, Am- (Around): Ambidextrous, ambition, amputee.
Ante-, Anti-, An- (Before): Antedate, anticipate, ancestor, antecedent,
antechamber.
Bene- (Well): Benevolent, benefit, benediction.
Bi-, Bis-, Bin- (Twice): Bicycle, biped, bisect, biennial,
biscuit, binary.
Circum-, Circu- (Around): Circumnavigate, circumference, circumspect,
circumstance, circuit.
Con- (With) (and by assimilation, in the forms Col-, Com-, Cor-, Co-):
Condense, collect, compact, correspond, council, co- exist.
Contra(o)-, Counter- (Against):
Contradict, controvert, counteract,
countersign.
De-, Di- (Down, away): Dethrone, detach, decamp, deter, demerit.
33
Dis-, Di-, Dif- (Asunder, not): Dishonor, disgrace, displease, differ,
divorce, dislocate, diminish.
Dis- (Reversal): Disclose, disarm, disappear, discontinue.
Ex-, Ef-, E- (Out): Expel, effect, enormous, examine, educate, exPresident.
Extra- (Beyond): Extraordinary, extravagant.
In- (In) (and by assimilation, Il-, Im-, Ir-, En-, Em-): Invade, illusion,
immerse, irruption, entitle, embrace.
In- (Not): Ineligible, illegal, immense, irrational, ignominy.
Inter- (Between): Intercourse, intervene, international.
Intra- (Within): Intramural, intrinsic.
Intro- (Into): Introduce, introspection.
Male- (Evil): Malefactor, malignant, malcontent.
Ne-, Non- (Not): Nefarious, negligent, nonsense.
Ob-, Oc-, Of- (In front of): Obvious, occasion, offend, omit.
Omni- (All): Omniscient, omnipresent, omnivores.
Pen- (Almost): Peninsula, penultimate.
Per-, Pel-, Par-, (Through): Perfect, pellucid, pardon.
Post- (After): Postscript, postpone, post-date.
Pre- (Before): Premonition, precaution.
Preter- (Beyond): Preternatural.
Pro-, Prod- (For): Promise, produce, prodigal.
Quadru- (Fourfold): Quadruped, quadrangle.
Re- (Again): Retrospect, retrograde.
Se-, Sed- (Apart): Secede, seclude, secret.
Semi- (Half): Semi-circle, semi-colon.
Sine- (Without): Sinecure.
Sub- (Under) (Also in the forms of Suc-, Suf-, Sug-, Sup-, Sur-, Sus-):
Subject, succeed, suffer, support, surreptitious, suspend, suggest.
Super-, Sur- (Over): Superficial, superstructure, superintend, surpass,
survive.
Trans-, Tra-, Tres- (Across): Transgress, traverse, trespass.
Tri-, Tre- (Three): Trilateral, triangle, treble.
Uni- (One): Uniform, unanimous.
Vice- (Instead of): Viceroy, vice-chairman, viscount.
Greek Prefixes
A-, An- (Without): Apathy, Anarchy.
Anti- (Against): Antidote, antitoxin, antagonist.
Apo-, Aph- (From): Apostate, apology, apostrophe.
Arch- (Chief): Archbishop, archenemy, architect.
Auto- (Self): Automobile, automaton, autograph.
Cata- (Down): Cataract, catastrophe, cathedral.
Di- (In two): Dilemma, diphthong.
Dia- (Through): Diameter, diagonal, dialogue.
Dys- (Ill): Dyspeptic, dysentery.
Ec-, Ex- (Out of): Exodus, eccentric.
En- (In): Enthusiasm, emphasis, energy.
Epi-, Eph-, Ep- (Upon): Epitaph, epigram, epistle.
34
Eu-, Ev- (Well, good): Euphony, evangelist.
Hemi- (Half): Hemisphere.
Hetero- (Different): Heterodox, heterogeneous.
Hex- (Six): Hexagon, hexameter.
Hiero- (Sacred): Hierarchy, hieroglyph.
Homo- (Like): Homogeneous, homonym.
Hyper- (Beyond): Hyperbole, hypercritical.
Hypo- (Under): Hypothesis, hyphen, hypodermic.
Meta-, Meth-, Met- (After, change): Metaphor, method.
Miso- (Hate): Misanthrope, misogynist.
Mono- (Alone): Monopoly, monarch, monoplane.
Ortho- (Right): Orthodox, orthography.
Pan- (All): Panorama, pantomime.
Para- (Beside): Parasite, parody.
Pente- (Five): Pentagon, Pentateuch, pentameter.
Peri- (Round): Perimeter, period.
Phil- (Love): Philanthropist, philosophy.
Poly- (Many): Polygon, polygamy, polysyllable.
Proto- (First): Prototype, protoplasm.
Pseudo- (False): Pseudonym, pseudo-gothic.
Syn-, Syl-, Sym- (With): Synonym, syllable, sympathy, syntax.
Tele- (Far): Telegraph, telephone, telepathy.
English Suffixes
a) Nouns:
i. Denoting agent or doer:
-el, -le: Shovel, cripple, bundle.
-er (also -ar, -or, -ier, -yer, -ter, -ster): speaker, runner, liar, sailor,
collier, lawyer, daughter, spinster.
-monger (mingler): Fishmonger, ironmonger.
-wright (Worker): Wheelwright, playwright.
ii. Denoting state or condition:
-dom: Freedom, martyrdom, wisdom.
-hood, -head: Manhood, neighborhood, goldhead.
-ness: Darkness, goodness, fickleness.
-ship, -scape (Shape): Lordship, hardship, friendship, landscape.
-th, -t: Width, health, gift.
iii. Diminutives:
-el, -le: Cockerel, mongrel, satchel, paddle.
-ing, -ling: Darling, duckling, seedling, hireling.
-kin, -en: Lambkin, napkin, kitten, chicken.
-ock: Hillock, bullock.
b) Adjectives:
35
-ed: Wretched, ragged, moneyed.
-en: Wooden, earthen, woolen.
-ful: Hopeful, fearful, awful.
-ish, -sh: Foolish, slavish, peevish.
-less (Without): Fearless, senseless, coatless.
-ly (Like): Manly, kindly, ghostly.
-some: Meddlesome, tiresome, wholesome.
-ward: Homeward, wayward, westward.
-y: Greedy, sorry, weary, sticky.
c) Verbs:
-el, -le (Frequentative and diminutive): Dazzle, fizzle, gamble, prattle,
waddle.
-en (Forming transitive verbs):
Lengthen, frighten, sweeten, hearten,
enliven.
-er (Intensive and
frequentative):
Patter,
bluster,
chatter, flutter,
glimmer.
By vowel or consonant change from nouns: Bathe (bath), clothe (cloth),
graze (grass), glaze (glass).
Greek and Latin Suffixes
(These are classed together, because most of the Greek suffixes came
into English through Latin.)
a) Nouns:
i. Denoting persons:
-ain, -an, -en, -on: Chieftain, pagan, warden, sexton, Caledonian.
-ar, -er, -eer, -or, -ary: Vicar, falconer, engineer, counselor, secretary.
-ate, -ee,-ey:
Curate, advocate, legate, examinee, trustee, payee,
attorney.
-ess (Fem.): Lioness, poetess.
-ist, -ast, -ite (Greek): Dentist, novelist, enthusiast, Jesuit, Jacobite.
-or, -our, -eur: Doctor, author, savior, amateur.
-trix (Fem.): Executrix.
b) Abstract nouns:
-age: Brokerage, leakage, average.
-ance, -ence: Abundance, brilliance, innocence.
-ate: Electorate.
-cy, -sy: Fancy, lunacy, phantasm.
-ice, -ise, -ess: Avarice, exercise, prowess.
-ion, -on, -om: Opinion, lesson, oration, ransom.
36
-ism, -asm: (Greek): Patriotism, socialism, sarcasm.
-ment: Enchantment, punishment.
-mony: Alimony, matrimony.
-tude: Fortitude, latitude.
-ty: Cruelty, piety, admiralty.
-ure: Censure, furniture.
-y: Misery, envy, charity.
c) Nouns denoting place of action:
-ary, -ery, -ory, -ry: Dispensary, nunnery, dormitory, vestry, pantry.
-ter, -tre, -cre: Cloister, theater, sepulcher.
d) Diminutives:
-cule, -ule, -cle, -sel, -il, etc.: Globule, particle, parcel, damsel, codicil.
-et, -ot, -let: Owlet, tartlet, faggot, parrot.
e) Other Latin noun suffixes:
-al, -el: Canal, channel, chattel, fuel, jewel.
-ade: Cascade, blockade, barricade.
-on: Apron, bacon, glutton, simpleton.
-oon: Balloon, harpoon.
-or, -our, -eur: Liquor, honor, grandeur.
-ule, -le, -el, -il: Vestibule, ridicule, stable, table, obstacle, peril.
-y: Steady, remedy, augury.
f) Adjective suffixes:
-al: Legal, regal, general.
-ane, -an: Humane, human, Elizabethan.
-ant, -ent: Petulant, obedient, innocent.
-ar: Familiar, regular.
-ary, -arious: Contrary, necessary, gregarious, nefarious.
-ate, -ete, -ite, -ute: Temperate, complete, infinite, absolute.
-ble, -bile: Honorable, eatable, mobile, edible.
-esque: Grotesque, picturesque.
-ic, -ique: Public, domestic, antique.
-id: Humid, pallid.
-ile, -eel, -le: Fragile, gentile, genteel, gentle.
-ine: Feminine, feline, alpine, Latin.
-ive: Active, attentive.
-lent: Somnolent, indolent.
-ory: Migratory, illusory.
-ose, -ous: Bellicose, glorious, dangerous.
37
NOTE: Many of the above suffixes are also used to form nouns: e.g.
animal, incendiary, motive, fanatic.
g) Verbs:
-ate, -ite, -se: Venerate, assassinate, isolate, incense.
-esce: Effervesce, coalesce.
-fy: Edify, mollify, fortify.
-ise, -ize: Equalize, civilize.
-ish: Finish, banish, flourish.
38
THE PRACTICAL STYLIST
Sheridan Baker
1981
WRITING GOOD SENTENCES
All sentences are all offshoots of the active simple sentence with action moving
straight from subject through verb to object. This subject-verb-object sentence can be
infinitely shaped and reshaped, but there are really only two general varieties of it: (1)
the “loose, or strung along,” and (2) the periodic.
Our thoughts are by nature strung along from subject through verb to object,
with whatever comes to mind simply added. Ali hits Ahmet. The loose sentence puts its
subject and verb early. But we can also use the periodic sentence where ideas hang in the
air until all interconnections are locked by the final word, at the period. Ali, the best
student in the class, the tallest and most handsome, hits Ahmet. A periodic sentence, in
other words, is one that suspends its meaning until the end. Usually the subject and the
verb are widely separated with the verb as near the end as possible.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Use the Simple Active Sentence
Your best sentences will be a mixture of the loose and the periodic. First, learn
to use active ver
bs (Ali hits Ahmet), with all parts (subject-verb-object) showing; as opposed to a
verb in the passive voice (Ali is hit by Ahmet), which puts everything backwards and
uses more words. Then learn to give your loose (strung-along) sentence a touch of
periodicity.
Any change in normal order can give you unusual emphasis, as when you move
the object ahead of the subject:
That I like.
The house itself she hated, but the yard was beautiful.
Most often we express our ideas one at a time, in normal succession. You may
change this fixed way of thinking and effectively complicate the subject:
A good speech usually begins quietly, proceeds sensibly, gathers momentum,
and finally moves excites even the most indifferent audience.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
Learn the Difference Between Compound and Complex Sentences
You make a compound sentence by linking together simple sentences with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so) or with a colon or a semicolon. You
make a complex one by hooking secondary sentences with that, which, who, or one of the
many other subordinating connectives like although, because, where, when, after, if. The
compound sentence treats everything on the same level; the complex puts everything else
below its main idea. The compound links ideas one after the other, as in the basic simple
sentence; the complex is a simple sentence enlarged by clauses instead of merely by
phrases. In other words, the compound represents the strung-along way of thinking; the
complex frequently represents the periodic.
Avoid simple-minded Compounds
39
Essentially the compound sentence is simple minded. It is built on the simple
sequence of things written as they occur to the mind. Think of the compound sentence in
terms of its conjunctions and of the accompanying punctuation. Here are three basic
groups of conjunctions that will help you sort out and punctuate your compound
thoughts:
Group I- The three common co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, and or (nor).
Put a comma before each.
I like her, and I don't mind saying so.
Art is long, but life is short.
Win this point, or the game is lost.
Group II - Conjunctive adverbs: therefore, moreover, however, nevertheless,
consequently, furthermore. Put a semicolon before, and a comma after each.
Nations indeed seem to have a kind of biological span like human life, from
rebellious youth, through caution, to decay; consequently, predictions of doom are not
uncommon.
Group III - Some in-betweeners - yet, still, so - which sometimes take a comma,
sometimes a semicolon, depending on your emphasis.
We long for the good old days, yet we never include the disadvantages.
Rome declined into the pleasures of its circuses and couches; so the tough
barbarians conquered.
Try Compounding with Conjunctions
Though the conjunction usually governs its compound sentence, the semicolon
and the colon remain as two powerful co-ordinators. The semicolon is very good for
contrasts:
The government tries to get the most out of taxes; the individual tries to get out
most of the taxes.
The colon similarly puts two sentences together, without the need for a
conjunction, period, or capital. But it signals amplification, not contrast; the second
clause explains the first:
A growing population means more business: more business will exhaust our
supply of ores in less than half a century.
Learn to Subordinate
You probably write compound sentences almost without thinking. But to write
complex sentences usually require some thought. You must first pick your most
important idea. Then you must place your lesser thoughts below the main idea:
Although some claim that time is an illusion, because we have no absolute
chronometer, although the mind cannot effectively grasp time, because the mind itself is
a kind of timeless presence almost oblivious to seconds and hours, although the time of
our solar system may be only an instant in the universe at large, WE STILL CANNOT
QUITE DENY that some progression of universal time is passing over us, if only we
could measure it.
Complex sentences are really simple sentences gloriously delayed and
elaborated with subordinate thoughts. Even a short sentence may be complex:
Twice in my life, for reasons that escape me now, though I am sure they were
discreditable, I allowed myself to be persuaded that I ought to take a hand in turning out
a musical comedy.
The Long and Short of It
Your style will emerge once you can manage some length of sentence. But try
the very long sentence, and the very short. Short sentences are meatiest:
40
I think; therefore, I am.
The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.
You should be able to use the periodic and the loose, the complex and the
simple, the long and the short together in your essays and reports. Such orchestration
takes years of practice, but you can always begin.
CORRECTING WORDY SENTENCES
Let us examine the bad habits that waste our words, fog our thoughts, and wreck
our delivery. Our satisfaction in merely getting something down on paper naturally
blinds us to our errors. It hypnotizes us into believing we have said what we meant,
when our words actually say something else: “Every seat in the class was filled to
capacity.” Two ways of expressing your thought have collided: every seat was taken
and the class was filled to capacity. Cut the excess wordage: “Every seat was taken.”
Good sentences come from constant practice in correcting the bad.
Count Your Words
Writing is devilish; the general sin is wordiness. We put down the first thought
that comes to our mind, we miss the best order, and then we need lots of is's, of's, by's
and which's -words completely meaningless in themselves - to bring our meaningful
words together again. Look for the two or three words that carry your ideas; then see if
you can rearrange them to speak for themselves, cutting out all the little useless wirings:
This is the young man who was elected to be president by the class.
(This is the young man the class elected president. Or: The class elected this
young man president. 9 words, or 7 words, instead of 14.)
See if you cannot promote a noun into a verb, and cut overlaps in meaning:
Last week, the gold stampede in Europe reached near panic proportions. (Last
week, Europe's gold speculators almost stampeded. 7 words for 11.)
Frequently you can reduce tautologies (useless repetition):
each separate incident - each incident
many different ways - many ways
dash quickly - dash
As these examples show, the basic cure for wordiness is to count the words and
to make each word count.
Shun the Passive Voice
The passive voice is more wordy and deadly than most people imagine:
It was voted that there would be a campaign for the cleaning up of the people's
park. (passive voice - 17 words.)
We (the town, the council) voted a drive to clean up the people's park. (active
voice - 10 or 11 words, depending on the subject.)
The passive voice has certain uses. In fact, your meaning sometimes demands
the passive voice. But it is wordy. It puts useless words in a sentence. Example:
Passive: Public concern has also been given a tremendous impetus by the
findings of the Hoover Commission on the federal government, and “little Hoover”
commissions to survey the organizational structure and functions of many state
governments have been established.”
Active: The findings of the Hoover Commission on federal government have
also greatly stimulated public concern, and many states have established “little Hoover”
commissions to survey their governments. (27 words for 38)
Check the Stretchers
To be, itself, frequently ought not to be:
41
He seems (to be) upset about something.
She considered him (to be) perfect.
This appears (to be) difficult.
Above all, keep your sentences clear of those favorite stretchers, There
is...which, It is...that, and the like:
Moreover, (there is) one segment of the population (which) never seeks
employment.
(There are) many women (who) never marry.
(It is) his last book (that) shows his genius best.
(It is) this (that) is important.
Beware the Of-and-Which Disease
The passive sentence frequently breaks out in a rash of of's and which's, and
even the active sentence may suffer. Here is an actual case:
Many biological journals, especially those which regularly publish new
scientific names, now state in each issue the exact date of publication of the preceding
issue. In dealing with journals which do not follow this practice, or with volumes which
are issued individually, the biologist often needs to resort to indexes...in order to
determine the actual date of publication of a particular name.
You can cut more than a third of this passage without touching the sense (using
39 words for 63):
Many biological journals, especially those regularly publishing new scientific
names, now give the date of each preceding issue. With journals not following this
practice, and with some books, the biologist must turn to indexes...to date a particular
name.
Avoid the “The Use of.”
In fact, both use, as a noun, and use, as a verb, are dangerously wordy words.
Since using is one our most basic concepts, other words in your sentence will already
contain it:
He uses rationalization. (He rationalizes.)
Through (the use of) logic, he persuades.
Break the Noun Habit
Passive writing loves the noun, modifying nouns with nouns in pairs, even in
denser clusters. Break up these groups, let the language flow, make one noun of the pair
an adjective:
Teacher militancy is not as marked in New York. (Teachers are not so militant
in New York. 7 words for 8.)
Or convert one noun to a verb:
Consumer demand is falling in the area of services. (Consumers are demanding
fewer services. 5 words for 9.)
A good rule: Do not use nouns as adjectives.
WORDY
DIRECT
advance notice
notice
long in size
long
of an indefinite nature
indefinite
in order to
to
by means of
by
in relation to
with
in connection with
with
Whenever possible, find the equivalent adjective:
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of great importance
important
teaching excellence
excellent teaching
encourage teaching quality
encourage good teaching
Or change the noun to its related participle:
uniform police
uniformed police
poison arrow
poisoned arrow
Or make the noun possessive:
reader interest
reader's interest
veterans insurance
veterans' insurance
So the message should now be clear. Write simple active sentences.
Avoid Excessive Distinctions and Definitions
Too many distinctions, too many nouns, and too much Latin make pea soup:
Reading is a processing skill of symbolic reasoning sustained by the
interfacilitation of an intricate hierarchy of substrata factors that have been mobilized as a
psychological working system and pressed into service in accordance with the purpose of
the reader.
This comes from an educator, with the wrong kind of education. He is saying:
Reading is a process of symbolic reasoning aided by an intricate network of
ideas and motives. (16 words for 40.)
Clearly, writing is hard. It requires constant attention to meanings, and constant
pruning.
Count your words, and make your words count.
ESSAYS
THE WRITTEN VOICE
Make Your Writing Talk
It is remarkable that the written page should seem to speak with the writer's
voice. With all the gestures gone, no eyes to twinkle, no notation at all for the rise and
fall of utterance, and only a handful of punctuation marks, the lines can still convey the
writer's voice, the tone of his personality.
To achieve this tone, to find your own voice and style, simply try to write in the
language of intelligent conversation. Your writing should be literate. It should be broad
enough of vocabulary and rich enough of sentence to show that you have read books. It
should be worthy to place you in the company of those who have written well in the
language you use.
But it should nevertheless retain the tone of intelligent and agreeable
conversation. It should be alive with a human personality - yours - which is probably the
most persuasive rhetorical force on earth. Good writing should have a voice, and the
voice should be unmistakably your own.
Consider Your Readers
If you must take your subject seriously and yourself respectfully, how should
you take your readers? Who are they, anyway? Hypothetically, your vocabulary and
your tone would vary all the way from the slums to Babıali, depending on the subject;
and certainly the difference of audience would reflect itself somewhat in your language.
Furthermore, you must indeed sense your audience's capacity, and its prejudices, if you
want to keep them interested.
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But the notion of adjusting your writing to a whole scale of audiences, though
attractive in theory, hardly works in practice. You are writing, and the written word
presupposes a literate norm that immediately eliminates all the lower ranges of mere talk.
Even when you speak, you do not so lose your identity as to pass for a total illiterate.
You stand on your own linguistic personality.
Consider your audience a mixed group of intellectual and reasonable adults.
You want them to think of you as well informed and well educated. You wish to explain
what you know and what you believe. You wish to persuade them pleasantly that what
you know is important and what you believe is right. Try to imagine what they might ask
you, what they might object to, what they might know already, what they might find
interesting. Be simple and clear, amusing and profound, using plenty of illustration to
show what you mean. But do not talk down to them. That is the great flaw in the
slumming theory of communication. Bowing to your readers' supposed level, you insult
them by assuming their inferiority. The best solution is simply to assume that your
readers are as intelligent as you. Even if they are not, they will be flattered by the
assumption. Your written language, in short, will be respectful toward your subject,
considerate toward your readers, and somehow amiable toward human feelings.
Do Not Apologize
“In my opinion,” the beginner will write repeatedly, until he seems to be saying
“It is only my opinion, after all, so it cannot be worth much.” He has failed to realize that
his whole essay represents his opinion. Do not make your essay into a confidential report
of what happened to you last night as you agonized over a certain question. You have to
be the informed adult, showing the reader around firmly, politely, and persuasively.
BEGINNING, MIDDLE, END
As Aristotle long time ago pointed out, works that spin their way through time
need a beginning, a middle, and an end to give them the stability of paintings and statues.
You need a clear beginning to give your essay character and direction so the reader can
tell where he is going and can look forward with expectation. Your beginning, of course,
will set forth your thesis. You need a middle, to amplify and fulfill. This would be the
body of your argument, the bulk of your essay. You need an end to let your readers
know that they have arrived and where. This will be your final paragraph, a summation
and reassertion of your theme.
The beginning must feel like a beginning, not like an accident. It should be at
least a full paragraph that lets your reader into the subject and culminates with your
thesis. The end, likewise, should be full paragraph, one that drives the point home, and
brings the reader to rest, back on the fundamental thesis to give a sense of completion.
BASIC STRATEGIES
Arrange Your Points in Order of Increasing Interest
Once your thesis is presented, your reader's interest is probably at its highest.
He wants to see how you can prove such an outrageous thing, or to see what the
arguments are for this thing he has always believed but never tested. Each step of the
way into your demonstration, he is learning more of what you have to say. But,
unfortunately, his interest may be relaxing as it becomes satisfied. Against this loss of
interest you must make each progressive point more interesting. And save your best till
last. It is as simple as that.
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Again, each successive item of your presentation should be more interesting
than the last, or you will suddenly seem anticlimatic.
Acknowledge and Dispose of the Opposition, Point by Point
A serious controversial argument needs an organization beyond the simple
structure of rising interest. Although you gave taken your stand firmly as a pro, you will
have to explain the con's as well, or you will seem not to have thought much about your
subject. The more opposition you can manage as you argue your point, the more
victorious you will seem.
SAMPLE ESSAY PLAN
Beginning paragraph
- Opening remarks
- Generalize
- Thesis (last sentence)
Middle paragraphs
- Make your weakest argument first
- Lead up to the strongest, which is the last in the body of your essay (your
points may
be
sentences or paragraphs)
- Illustrate with facts and examples, in clear and lively language.
End paragraph
- Thesis reworded
- Generalize again
- Clincher (your Final Sentence and Last Word)
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