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MORAL PHILOSOPHY (Philo 12)
Michael Jhon M. Tamayao, Ph.L., MPhil.
Lecture I:
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
At the end of the discussion, the students must be able to:
1. Distinguish the speculative from the empirical way of thinking.
2. Acquaint themselves with the meaning of philosophy.
3. Define ethics.
(June 16, ’08)
Before going to the definition of philosophy and ethics, it is important to first explain the
nature and approach of our course. This will give us an idea of “what” possible themes are
discussed in this subject and “how” we are to discuss them.
I. Empirical vs. Speculative…
i. The main branches of knowledge
We can divide the entire field of human knowledge into two major categories: the Humanities
and the Empirical Sciences.
Under the Humanities are religion, philosophy, and the arts. Under the Empirical
Sciences, on the other, we have the different Natural Sciences (such as Biology, Chemistry, &
Physics) and the Social Sciences (such as Economics, History, & Sociology). The Humanities
generally use the “speculative” approach, while the Empirical Sciences use the “empirical”
approach.
This is not an exhaustive diagram of all the different branches of knowledge.
Human Knowledge
Humanities
Empirical Sciences
Biology
Philosophy
Empirical Sciences
Religion
Chemistry
Physics
Fine Arts
Empirical Sciences
Sociology
Economics
History
Philosophy is a speculative science because it is under the broader speculative discipline
of Humanities. Inasmuch as philosophy is a speculative science, ethics, which is a branch of
philosophy, is also a speculative science. The first thing that all students of this subject should
know is the distinction between the “speculative” sciences and the “empirical” sciences.
Understanding the difference between these two is a prerequisite for understanding the nature of
philosophy and ethics.
ii. Etymology of the words “empirical” and “speculative”
The word “empirical” came from the Greek word “empirikos”, which means
“experience.” Empirikos could further be dissected into two Greek words, en- and peira, which
respectively mean “in” and “trial.” Thus, when we say “empirical” it is something that is derived
from experience or trials/experiments. The word speculative, on the other hand, came from the
Greek word “spekulatus”, which means “to look at.” Thus, we define speculative as something
that is derived from examinations and theoretical activities.
iii. Empirical is inductive while Speculative is deductive
We usually associate the empirical way of thinking with inductive reasoning, and the
speculative with deductive reasoning. The former (empirical/inductive) starts with specific,
observational, and experiential data in coming up with generalized conclusions. The latter
(speculative/deductive), on the other, starts with general ideas and applies them to specific
circumstances. The empirical and the speculative modes of thinking are henceforth differentiated
in their way of coming up with and acquiring knowledge.
iv. Philosophy as a speculative science
Philosophy (and therefore also moral philosophy1) is not primarily an empirical study of
the actions of man or of the nature of the material universe, although empirical studies of man
are of relevance to the philosopher. Philosophers do not generally engage in empirical researches
that usually begin with specific questions about someone or something. Although they may
consider the “generalizations” and “conclusions” inferred from the data and specific queries,
they don’t indulge themselves with the specifics. Philosophers primarily engage themselves with
general concepts and fundamental principles of all sciences. We call this way of inquiry as the
“speculative” mode of thinking. Thus, instead of asking specific questions, philosophers ask
questions of the following sort:
What is ultimate reality?
How can I know?
How can I know correctly?
Which things/actions are beautiful/good?
Why does something exist?
1
Moral Philosophy is synonymous with the word Ethics.
(June 18, ’08)
II. Definition of Philosophy…
After having seen the approach used by the Humanities, in general, and philosophy, in
particular, which is highly speculative, let us now discuss the meaning of the term “philosophy”.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
In the above stated question, we are not actually seeking for the absolute definition of
philosophy. Defining philosophy using one standard definition is itself a reduction of the full
significance of the word. Philosophy, after all, is something that eludes exact definition. When I
say, for example, that philosophy is a quest for human knowledge, the exact meaning of
knowledge or how it is acquired is again a paradoxical concept requiring further inquiry.
Moreover, some philosophers also define philosophy basing on what they think indeed engages
philosophical thinking. So aside from the evasive nature of the term, philosophy is also relative
to the definitions given by the publicly acclaimed philosophers. So what should we do and where
should we start?
Well, one good approach is to dissect our discussion into, so to say, “chewable” parts.
Thus, I propose that our discussion should proceed as follows: 1. “Etymology “of the word; 2.
“Common definitions” of philosophy; 3. “Aristotle’s definition” of philosophy; 4. The process of
“Questioning and Answering” in philosophy; 5. “The Branches” of philosophy, and; 6.
“Emergence” of Philosophy. This is not of course the standard way of discussing the meaning of
philosophy, but this is, for me, the most effective way of orienting the students to the meaning of
philosophy.
i. Etymology of the Word “Philosophy”…
The word philosophy is derived from the word “philosopher” for which the Greek term is
“philosophos,” a lover (philos) of wisdom (sophia).2 The etymology (origin) of the word
indicates that philosophy, before becoming a discipline or field of study, is first and foremost a
personal disposition towards knowledge. It is not just a course or a general education subject,
but, rather, a “way of life.”
ii. Common Definitions of Philosophy…
Here is a list of definitions that we usually give to philosophy:
Philosophy is a quest for wisdom.
Philosophy is a quest for truth.
Philosophy is a form of in depth thinking.
Philosophy studies life.
Because we cannot give a single definition of philosophy, none of these definitions will suffice
the real meaning of philosophy. But as they say, in order to know something, we need to have a
starting point.
2
Robert C. Trundle, Jr., Ancient Greek Philosophy: Its development and Relevance to Our Time. (Brookfield:
Ashgate Publishing Company, 1994), p. 4.
Although the above given definitions will tell us some basic characteristics of
philosophy, these definitions are still vague and misleading. The words truth and knowledge, for
example, are very vague, and they usually go beyond the grips of common everyday thinking. In
a way we already know them, but upon close scrutiny we do not. Try defining them and you’ll
see what I mean. These concepts have been two of the most highly sought and problematized
concepts in philosophy.
iii. Aristotle’s Definition
Just so we can have a starting point and have a guiding definition, let us adopt Aristotle’s
definition of philosophy for reasons of sufficiency and simplicity. According to this great
thinker, philosophy is the study of the ultimate principles and causes of things using human
reason alone. It is a science that provides a systematic and clear account of what is deemed
important in the world, such as questions pertaining to reality and human existence. It asks the
basis for the rationality of the universe and human life.
So who are the philosophers? Can a stereotype tambay be a philosopher? Well, the
simple answer is that anyone can be a philosopher as long as he develops in himself the
disposition of wanting to explain systematically the ultimate meaning of things.
iv. The process of “Questioning and Answering” in philosophy…
One method employed in philosophy is the “dialectical” or “question & answer” method.
This method was developed by Socrates and Plato. The method points into the definitive
character of philosophy as something that seeks the ultimate principles or grounds of things. If
one makes a statement, for example, “Philosophy is the search for truth,” philosophers will
question this statement further and look for the deeper meanings of the terms. So I would ask,
“what do you mean by truth?” Through a continuous search for the ultimate answers for
anything whatsoever, one will eventually arrive at the fundamental explanations of things.
v. The Branches of Philosophy…
Traditionally, philosophy has five branches: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and
aesthetics. Inasmuch as philosophy seeks for the ultimate reasons of things, these branches probe
for the ultimate grounds of things. Metaphysics asks, “What is ultimate reality?” Epistemology
asks, “How can man possibly know something?” The branch that provides rules for the mind to
think correctly is Logic. Value Philosophy asks which things or actions are beautiful or good.
And the branch that asks “why does something exist?” is Ontology. We will study them more in
detail as we proceed in our lesson.
Today, philosophy could have infinite branches for the basic reason that it can study
anything. Henceforth, the expression “philosophy of X” where X may be substituted with
sciences like art, history, law, literature, or the various special sciences such as physics and
biology.
vi. Emergence of Philosophy
(June 20, ’08)
WHAT IS ETHICS OR MORAL PHILOSOPHY?
After discussing the meaning of philosophy, we are now ready to dwell on the meaning
of ethics. Because ethics is a branch of philosophy, it also asks fundamental questions about the
most important of things. It asks questions like, “Which acts are good?”, “Why are these acts
really good?”, “What moral norms should be implemented?”, or “What is the meaning of life?”
Two Major Moral Theories…
Ethical accounts usually explain the rationality of our moral experiences. Of why we feel
pity towards a certain person, for example. Or why in some circumstances should we denounce
the acts of a certain person and claim that he is evil. These said accounts attempts to explain why
we feel these things and make these moral judgments about them.
Although there are numerous accounts that explain our moral experiences, one can
simply categorize them into two general theories: “Moral Subjectivism” and “Moral
Objectivism.” On the one hand, Moral Subjectivism states that moral judgments are formed by
the society. This means that moral norms vary from one culture to another. Moral Objectivism,
on the other hand, states that moral judgments are objective rational judgments about our moral
experiences. This means that there are universally accepted moral norms that are objectively true
for all cultures.
Definitions of Ethics…
Ethics is commonly defined as the “practical science of the morality of human acts.” 3 It is
a “science” because it is a collection of organized, systematized, and coherent ideas that explain
or rationalizes the morality of human acts. It is a “practical” science because it is a body of
knowledge that pertains to how we conduct ourselves through our actions. Now, what ethics
explains is the “morality” of “human acts.” When we say morality, we simply mean the quality
of an act, i.e. the rightness or wrongness of an act. And by human acts, we mean actions done by
man out of his highest faculties, which are “reason” and “will.”
Ethics is also called “moral philosophy” because it searches for the deeper essence and
reasons (philosophy) of human morality. For this reason, some define ethics as the “philosophy
of life.”4 Morality is exclusive to man because he is the only creature who has reason and will.
The reason why man aims to be a moral being is because he wants to live a meaningful life.
Thus, more fundamental than asking the morality of human acts is the question of the meaning of
life itself.
For us to know the meaning of life, we must answer two equally important questions:
“where did we come from?” and “what is the purpose of our life?” This only points to the idea
that the meaning of man lies in the understanding of his temporality; that for us to know the
meaning of his present existence, we must first know his origin (past) and the purpose of his life
(future).
Where did everything come from? Many answers have been offered. Among them are the
theories of Evolutionism and Creationism. Although, we cannot have any absolute answer or
3
4
Paul Glenn, Ethics: A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (National Book Store) p. ix.
Felix Montemayor, Ethics: The Philosophy of Life, (Navotas: Navotas Press, 2006) p. xii.
theory that can suffice this question, still, the question stands. No matter what theory we adapt as
long as it clarifies our origins, then it may do.
What is the purpose of our existence? Just like in the first question, various answers were
also given. Some say, achieving Happiness is the purpose of life because in anything that man
does happiness is always his intention. Some say Pleasure because it is what makes life worth
living. And for some, God is the ultimate goal of our human existence. That after living a good
earthly life, we will once again be united with God, the Creator and End of all things.