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VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE
Dana Švenčionienė
THE ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN SYNTACTIC PREDICATES
AND THE MORPHOSYNTACTIC REALIZATION
IN TECHNICAL TEXTS
SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION
HUMANITIES, PHILOLOGY (Linguistics 04 H)
Kaunas, 2009
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The research was accomplished in the period from 2005 to 2008 at Kaunas University of Technology.
Research supervisor:
Prof. habil. dr. Vitas Labutis (Vilnius University, Humanities, Philology, Linguistics 04 H) (in
the period from 2005 to 2009)
Procedure consultant:
Dr. Violeta Kalėdaitė (Vytautas Magnus University, Humanities, Philology, Linguistics 04H) (in
the period from 2008 to 2009)
The dissertation defence is held at the Scientific Board (branch of linguistics),
Vytautas Magnus University.
Chairperson:
Prof. habil. dr. Ineta Dabašinskienė (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H), Vytautas
Magnus University)
Members:
Dr. Jūratė Ruzaitė (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H), Vytautas Magnus University)
Prof. dr. Axel Holvoet (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04H), Institute of the Lithuanian
Language)
Prof. habil. dr. Olegas Poliakovas (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H), Vilnius University)
Doc. dr. Jolanta Vaskelienė (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H), Šiauliai University)
Official opponents:
Prof. habil. dr. Aurelija Usonienė (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H), Vilnius University)
Prof. habil. dr. Aloyzas Gudavičius (Humanities, Philology, Linguistics (04 H) Šiauliai University)
Language editor:
Dr. Carys Lloyd Jones (Education science (07 S), Philology (04 H), University of London, United
Kingdom)
The defence session is to be held at 12 a.m. on 23 October 2009 at the public meeting of the Council
of Philological Sciences of Vytautas Magnus University and the Institute of the Lithuanian Language
in the room of Prof. M. Gimbutienė, at the Central Building of Vytautas Magnus University.
Address: K.Donelaitis str. 52. LT-44246, Kaunas, Lithuania.
Phone: (8 37) 32 78 30, fax: (8 37) 20 38 58
The summary of the dissertation was mailed on September 23, 2009.
The dissertation is available at the M. Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania and the Library of the
Institute of Lithuanian Language in Vilnius, as well as in the Libraries of Vytautas Magnus University
and Kaunas University of Technology in Kaunas.
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VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS
LIETUVIŲ KALBOS INSTITUTAS
KAUNO TECHNOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS
Dana Švenčionienė
ANGLŲ IR LIETUVIŲ KALBŲ SINTAKSINIAI PREDIKATAI
IR JŲ MORFO SINTAKSINIS REALIZAVIMAS
TECHNINIUOSE TEKSTUOSE
Daktaro disertacijos santrauka
Humanitariniai mokslai, filologija (04 H)
Kaunas, 2009
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Disertacija rengta 2005–2008 metais Kauno technologijos universitete.
Disertacija ginama eksternu.
Mokslinis vadovas:
Prof. habil. dr. Vitas Labutis (Vilniaus Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04 H)
(konsultavo 2005–2009 m. m. )
Mokslinė konsultantė:
Doc. dr. Violeta Kalėdaitė (Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04
H) (2008–2009 m. m.).
Disertacija ginama Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto ir Lietuvių kalbos instituto mokslo taryboje
(filologijos kryptis).
Pirmininkė:
Prof. habil. dr. Ineta Dabašinskienė (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija
04 H)
Nariai:
Dr. Jūratė Ruzaitė (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04 H)
Prof. dr. Axel Holvoet (Lietuvių kalbos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04 H)
Prof. habil. dr. Olegas Poliakovas (Vilniaus universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04 H)
Doc. dr. Jolanta Vaskelienė (Šiaulių universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, filologija 04 H)
Oponentai:
Prof. habil. dr. Aurelija Usonienė (humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H, Vilniaus
universitetas)
Prof. habil. dr. Aloyzas Gudavičius (humanitariniai mokslai, filologija – 04 H, Šiaulių
universitetas).
Kalbos redaktorė:
Dr. Carys Lloyd Jones (Edukologija (07 S), filologija (04 H), Londono universitetas, Jungtinė
Karalystė)
Disertacija bus ginama viešame Filologijos mokslo krypties tarybos posėdyje 2009 m. spalio 23 d.
(penktadienį) 12 val. Prof. M. Gimbutienės auditorijoje.
Adresas: K.Donelaičio 52, LT-44246, Kaunas, Lietuva.
Tel.: (8 37) 32 78 30, faksas: (8 37) 20 38 58.
Disertacijos santrauka išsiuntinėta 2009 m. rugsėjo men. 23 d.
Disertaciją galima peržiūrėti Nacionalinėje M Mažvydo bibliotekoje, Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto ir
Lietuvių kalbos instituto bibliotekose bei Kauno Technologijos universiteto bibliotekoje.
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INTRODUCTION
The translation from the English language into Lithuanian has been and will always be of great
significance. It is especially topical nowadays when the European Union is expanding. The English
language is important not only for communities who use it as the means of communication, but for
international communication as well. The Lithuanian language is important for its users to preserve the
culture and traditions as well as being the backbone of the nation’s identity. The significance of the
Lithuanian language has been especially appreciated within diachronic comparative linguistics,
typological linguistics, general linguistics and social linguistics. It is useful to observe how the
Lithuanian language conforms to contemporary living and culture and how it realizes the potency
hidden in the language system.
The focus of the thesis. The chosen focus of the study is the syntactic predicate (hereinafter SP)
and its morphosyntactic realization in technical texts in the English and Lithuanian languages.
The study presents the basic notions of linguistic terms related to the concept of predicate used
in English and Lithuanian grammars. Modern English grammar books often use the term predicate in
more than one sense: the predicate is considered to be either one of the essential parts of a sentence
(Onions, 1971: 4; Burton–Roberts, 1998: 35) or the grammatical centre of a sentence with its semantic
units that the remaining syntactic elements of the structure (construction) can depend on (Jacobs,
1995: 12; Huddleston, Pullum, 2002: 50). The concept predicate (V) with the first meaning used in
English grammars corresponds to what is defined by the concept tarinys predicate in the studies of
Lithuanian syntax. Thus in order to compare the concept of predicate in both languages the modifier
syntactic has to be added to the traditional concept of predicate (V) used in English linguistics.
The concept predicate generally refers to predication. In modern Lithuanian linguistics, the
concept predication is rather diverse and even ambivalent. Predication is treated as a general
relationship of the sentence content with fact or reality and is expressed by the categories of modality,
tense and person (Balkevičius, 1963: 17). This sense of predication refers to the relationship between
the subject and the predicate (Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988: 17; Ambrazas, red., 1996: 487; Labutis, 2002:
100). In a general sense, predication is regarded as a speech–act (Morkūnas, 1999: 495, 496).
Predicativity of a sentence is closely related to the grammatical categories of a verb that express
tense, modality, mood, and convey the meaning. The verb forms of SP that organize English
interrogative and negative sentences, conjugated verb forms with the participle, gerund or infinitive
(aspect, voice, reflexivity, modal verbs with the infinitive or participle), the verb forms of be with the
participle in the Lithuanian language (compound tenses of verb forms) are considered to be analytical.
In the syntactic sentence structure (hereinafter SynSS), the morphosyntactic expression of SP is
determined by the grammatical forms of verbs, which to a great extent influence types of relations
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between words in the structure of SP in the English and Lithuanian languages. The grammaticality and
the boundaries of verb forms composing the types of the English SP often do not correspond to the
structural types of the Lithuanian SP.
The study does not deal with the verb forms that do not express SP (e.g. the gerund in English,
the participle in the attributive position in Lithuanian, the infinitive expressing purpose, the participle
in the position of a modifier in Lithuanian as participles alone neither form the centre of a sentence
nor form the predicate).
The type of SP (V) of the analytical structure is very specific in the English language. This type
of SP is composed of independent words as separate morphemes (e.g. auxiliary verb, modal verb,
participle, gerund) (e.g. the verb forms of continuous [is working] and perfect [have modified], voice
[is done], future [will arrive]) and other affixes to indicate the grammatical meaning. In contrast to the
English analytical verb form as SP, the Lithuanian SP is generally formed with the auxiliary verb be
and the participle (e.g. you have emphasized: esate pabrėžęs; was closed: buvo uždarytas) and by
means of affixation. Therefore, the interface between syntax and morphology is included in this study.
The study discusses the structural types of SP (V) that show the systemic correlation between the
specificity of conjugated verb forms and grammatical expression of verb in the English and Lithuanian
languages.
The hypotheses of the thesis are as follows:
1. The syntactic data of the English language and their equivalents in Lithuanian are interpreted
in a different way due to the different terminology established by the grammars of both languages.
English grammar studies are rich in diverse linguistic trends and theories. Linguistic studies of
Lithuanian grammar also draw on a variety of theoretical approaches.
2. SP (V) organizes the syntactic (grammatical) and semantic (focus) centre of a sentence
whereas the morphosyntactic expression of a verb form and the structure inside SP is very
complicated. An attribute or a quality implied by the predicate indicates the possessor of that quality
(generally the subject).
3. The contrastive analysis of SP in English and Lithuanian reveals the systematic correlation
between the grammaticalized verb forms and their expression, whereas the specificity of
morphological and syntactic characteristics is determined by the language type. The interpretation of
analytical verb forms depends on the perception of SP.
4. The degree of grammaticalization of verb forms composing SP in the English and Lithuanian
languages refers to different levels based on morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria. Analytical
verb forms (continuous, perfect) of the English SP, that are comprised of separate words and
morphemes ([aux. v. + participle]) to define the grammatical category, belong to the level of
morphology, whereas their translation equivalents correspond to the Lithuanian simple predicate
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which is analyzed on the syntactic level. The analytical verb construction of the Lithuanian SP (būti +
participle: yra buvęs = buvo) has synonyms of a simple form of conjugated verb. The types of the
Lithuanian SP composed of a modal verb with the infinitive (mod. v. + inf.) as a verbal complement is
considered to be the compound predicate and refers to the syntactic level.
5. The contrastive analysis of the structural types of the English and Lithuanian SP has revealed
the diversity of approaches towards the expression of SP among Lithuanian linguists. The analyticity
of verb forms and their relation to the type of SP, its pattern, and expression in the Lithuanian
language is still under dispute. The analytical type of the Lithuanian SP may be regarded as an
intermediate link between the simple predicate and compound predicate.
The aim of the thesis is to explore the specificity of both morphological and syntactic
characteristics of the verb as SP in the English and Lithuanian languages.
The study will address this aim by seeking the tasks of the thesis:
- to determine equivalents of the English linguistic terms in the Lithuanian language;
- to present a brief overview of structural, functional and semantic analysis of syntactic sentence
structure (SynSS) and the concept of SP in English and Lithuanian;
- to generalize typological specificities of structure, form and morphosyntactic expression of SP
and to determine the analyticity and variety of verb forms in SP;
- to substantiate the specificity of expression of verb forms as SP and the relationship with the
categories of tense, aspect, person, impersonality, mood, voice, transitivity and reflexivity in
the translation of technical texts;
- to overview the structural types of SP comprising of a linking verb and a verbal or nominal
element and to discuss the tendencies of morphosyntactic expression in the translation of
technical texts;
- to review the specificity of correlation between form and meaning in subject–predicate
agreement in the English and Lithuanian languages.
The degree of investigation. English grammar studies are rich in diverse linguistic trends and
theories. Linguistic studies of Lithuanian syntax also demonstrate a variety of approaches. Therefore,
the trends and theoretical principles most appropriate for the tasks of this study need to be chosen and
applied.
The study is based on the works of modern descriptive grammar and approaches of traditional
prescriptive grammar. Traditional descriptive and prescriptive grammars coincide to some extent, but
they also have certain differences. They both explain grammatical structure using the same methods
partly based on Aristotleian logic and partly on the meanings of language forms. Traditional grammar
theory, which prevails in school textbooks on the Lithuanian language used in all normative grammar
studies for language practice and teaching, is based on descriptivism. However, when languages
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having different structures are involved, i.e. English and Lithuanian in this case, traditional grammar
theory is unable to explain the specificity of language notions related to different traditions, lexis and
analysis. Traditional grammar explores the grammatical concepts of subject, predicate, object,
predicative (complement), and phrase that organize a sentence. Modern linguistic theories and
language investigations enrich the so–called traditional grammar, which is generally related only to a
mono-language study (Morkūnas, 1999: 224).
The theory of descriptive and prescriptive grammars is supplemented by the data of structural,
semantic and functional theory studies.
The study integrates morphology into syntax. The nature of relations between syntax and
morphology in a contrastive analysis of SP and its expression reveals the specificity of morphological
and syntactic characteristics determined by the language type.
The study continues with a comparative typological investigation into the structure and meaning
of the English and Lithuanian languages conducted by Lithuanian linguists. The typology of an
English and Lithuanian sentence structure and sentence components, the role of word order in a
sentence and the means of morphosyntactic realization are analyzed by drawing on the typological
works of English grammarians. Therefore, the theoretical principles and approaches in comparative
linguistics developed by English and Lithuanian linguists are applied.
The present study analyses SP of the two different languages. The morphosyntactic expression of
the structural types of SP, which constitute the basis of a sentence structure and content, has been
researched at length and in depth in the works of English grammars, but is still little discussed in
Lithuanian academic works, especially in those concerning scientific and technical texts. The analysed
data have been compared typologically to determine how the equivalents of expression through SP are
implemented in the translation of technical texts from English into Lithuanian and vice versa.
Generally, SP performs certain functions. Therefore, the contrastive analysis is based on the
approach from function to form and meaning. Such an approach helps to reveal the differences of the
structural and morphosyntactic expression of SP in both languages.
Research methods. The following methods are applied in the study:
1. The method of syntactic typology (Zaefferer, 1995: 1109–1110). A knowledge of syntax and
morphology is essential in the typological characterization of SP of the English and Lithuanian
languages. Thus the differentiation of syntax and morphology has become central to considering the
structural description of these languages.
2. The method of contrastive analysis (Chesterman, 1998: 28; 2004: 95; Albrecht, 2004: 243–
247; Neubert, 2004: 330–335). Contrastive linguistics is related to the systemic level of a language
where the cognitive experience of human interaction is encoded. Viewed theoretically, contrastive
linguistics and translation studies are related disciplines: however translation is regarded as
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supplementary to contrastive analysis. As the purpose of translation is to convey the intended meaning
from a source text to a target text, it has the function of language activity on the text level. The
equivalence of lexical and syntactic systems of the compared languages is determined by translation
criteria. An analysis of contrastive method is used to compare the texts of languages; translation
equivalents are investigated on the level of contrasting language systems.
3. Descriptive method (Ivir, 2004: 276, 278; Morkūnas, 1999: 224). A descriptive method is used
to describe the structure of the English and Lithuanian languages separately, invoking grammatical
rules, principles and data used in prescriptive grammar. The grammatical expression of the English
and Lithuanian SP is described by the interrelation of verb forms based on the analysis of the verb and
its possible position that it may have with respect to other elements in the structure.
4. Statistical method (Richards, Schmidt, 2002: 243). This method is used to determine the
frequency of structural types of SP in the English and Lithuanian languages. A thorough qualitative
and quantitative study of the morphosyntactic expression of verbs forming the structural types of the
English and Lithuanian SP is based on the analysis of scientific texts and text types.
The relevance of the research topic and the novelty of the results of the investigation.
Studying the English and Lithuanian SynSS it is relevant to observe, through the interference of these
languages, whether the English SynSS is or is not adopted in Lithuanian sentences during translation.
In English, being a non–inflectional type of language, the word order is fixed grammatically, nouns
and adjectives are non–inflected or little inflected and the grammatical meaning is specified
syntactically by word order or intonation (What role does quality management play in your practice?
Avoid breathing dust!). In Lithuanian, being an inflectional type of a language, the word order is not
so strict as in English. The grammatical meaning of words is determined via their forms expressed by
inflectional and compositional affixes. For example, the grammatical meaning of the nominative case
is determined by the syntagmatic relationship between the subject and the verb as SP (Elektros
jungiklis veikia ir kaip avarinis stabdiklis [nom.]) and by its paradigmatic relationship with other cases
(Užsegimo konstrukcija turi būti geros kokybės [gen.]. Geriausias būdas yra išlikti ramiam [dat.] etc.).
A generalization of the specificity of the structural types of the English and Lithuanian SP and
realization of morphosyntactic expression of verb can assist when translating from the source language
into the target language. Sentences are investigated with regard to the content and form. Particular
emphasis is given to the scientific text type to highlight its role in the realization and function of SP in
the syntactic structures of both languages.
The different characteristics of theoretical approaches in the expression of SP (V) have been
evaluated. The relationship among various grammatical phenomena associated with the structural type
of SP and its morphosyntactic expression is discussed. The comparison and translation of such texts,
first of all, require clarity in determining adequacy conditions and preciseness of use.
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The theoretical and practical value and the application of the study. The study overviews the
systemic specificity of conjugated verb forms and morphosyntactic expression of the verb as SP. The
evaluation of different linguistic approaches, related to the problems of expression of SP, is applied to
the chosen study. The morphosyntactic expression of the structural types of SP and its forms as the
dynamic language process is explored as well as the principles of patterning and analysis are applied
in the study.
Practically, the study could be of use for Lithuanian interpreters, translating scientific technical
texts from English into Lithuanian and vice versa; for teachers of English and for students of philology
who study the theory of structural syntax, the syntactic predicate and its morphosyntactic realization in
the English and Lithuanian languages. The collected sample texts may be used for building a technical
language corpus and finding term equivalents in both languages.
Material sources. The sources used in the study comprise dictionaries, academic writing
published matter such as scientific articles, a survey of the research on science and technology.
The data used in the study come from a variety of texts comprising twenty–six items that
produce more than eight thousand and forty (8040) of the English and Lithuanian sentence examples.
Possible variants of sentences and SP, not found in translated texts, are provided. Mistakes found in
some texts, which have no influence on the structure and its meaning of SP, are disregarded.
In the study, the analyzed examples are grouped according to the composition of SP. Based on a
contrastive analysis the differences in the morphosyntactic expression of the structural types of SP in
both languages are revealed. The opposition of the compositions of a mono–verb form as SP and
analytical verb form in the structure of SP, the tendencies of using such forms of SP are determined
statistically. The translation strategy of alternative forms used is discussed.
The SynSS of scientific technical texts is very diverse. Elliptical sentences are not common here.
The word order is stylistically neutral. Therefore, a translator often needs to change a sentence and
find a different structure for SP at the same time keeping close to the content of a text. In Lithuanian,
the constructions of impersonal sentences using the passive voice are frequent in rendering logical
information.
The structure of the work. The thesis comprises the introductory section, the theoretical
section, three investigatory sections, the conclusions, a list of abbreviations, a list of bibliographic and
reference sources, data sources and appendices.
Part One The theoretical background of the concept of syntactic sentence structure and its
analysis outlines the theoretical assumptions of traditional and modern linguistics to the SynSS
discussed in English and Lithuanian grammar books. This part provides a theoretical background for
structural, functional and semantic approach to sentence analysis presenting the syntactic and
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morphological composition of a sentence, word order typology and relations between the main
elements in a sentence in the English and Lithuanian languages.
A language is considered to be a structural system based on the oppositions of concrete units that
are the combinations of different structures (Bally et al., 1966: 107). Thus, every element in a
language system is defined, and the importance of its relations with other elements in the construction
of a sentence is determined.
The process of syntax most often shows dependency between parts of a sentence. Traditionally, a
sentence has the most general binary organization in the syntactic structure. Most English and
Lithuanian linguists (Onions, 1971: 4; Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 5; Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988: 31, 50, 56;
Burton–Roberts, 1998: 30–31, 35; Labutis, 2002: 202) recognize a grammatical subject and a
predicate (and its groups) as a necessary prerequisite to a sentence. The theory of systemic functional
grammar (Quirk et al., 1982: 19) treats the indication of the subject and the predicate as the traditional
matter of agreement. However, to determine these constituents in an impersonal sentence is actually a
very problematic matter. The functions of the grammatical predicate differ from those of the subject
both by their role in a sentence, and by higher structural activity held by the predicate as the
grammatical centre of a sentence. A sentence is defined a maximum syntactic unit, which has a more
general function. This means that a sentence can express a statement, a question, a request or a
command etc. (Matthews, 1993: 109). The grammatical form of a sentence and the semantic
interpretation of its components have already been used to describe the relations of SynSS and
semantics in the Lithuanian language (Ulvydas, ed., 1976). If a sentence has to be analyzed from the
point of view of form and meaning, the equivalents of the syntactic categories are indicated (Sirtautas,
1978, 1980; Labutis, 1981). The grammatical and communicative characteristics of a sentence are
assumed to be the most important on the level of sentence structure (Ambrazas, 1986: 4–5). The
completeness of an English sentence is characterized by an independent verb with its subject.
Morphological symbols are used to indicate classes of independent words.
The binary structure of a simple sentence refers to the first level of sentence analysis (Jacobs,
1995: 51; Van Valin, LaPolla, 1997: 244; Burton-Roberts, 1998: 30–33; Huddleston, Pullum, 2002:
53; Biber et al., 2004: 122). Hence, some considerations about a sentence division into several layers
are presented in this study: two layers refer to the semantic level; the third one refers to the syntactic or
morphosyntactic level (Holvoet, Semėnienė, 2005: 41). A primary nominal phrase NP and a verb
phrase VP are determined on the first level of analysis. Such a primary analysis of a sentence is
relevant to the very important oppositions of nouns and verbs in the theory of grammar. However, the
borders of syntax and morphology become vague and undefined at this level The predicate expressed
by the verb and the noun phrase are the basic grammatical components of the content in a sentence.
The traditional description of syntax is supplemented by grammatical patterns based on theory.
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The subject and the predicate are related to the NP and VP. A sentence as a structural unit comprises
words as elements that are not isolated. In this respect, every sentence can have a deep structure and a
surface structure according to its syntax. The elements of a sentence are related directly or indirectly
and are interdependent. Hierarchical ranks are set in a sentence structure. The syntactic centre
(grammatical) of a sentence organizes other elements in a sentence. Based on syntactic criteria the
exceptional position is attributed to the subject.
The basic idea of word order typology (Dryer, 1995: 1050) is based on the position of
grammatical elements that deal with morphological characteristics. The principle word order of
subject, verb and object (SVO) applies to both English and Lithuanian sentence structure. Syntactic
relations, that are common to all the approaches, are identified as being the relations between the two
constituents of a sentence, i.e. the subject and the predicate, that are supposed to have verb agreement
with the subject.
The typological investigation of the English and Lithuanian languages reveals differences in
sentence constructions that differ by syntactic and morphological means. The concepts of syntactic
categories (nouns, verbs) and syntactic relations (relations between nouns and verbs) refer to the
theory of prescriptive grammar and they are very important in the analysis of syntactic sentence
structure (Heringer, 1993: 298–345; Primus, 1993: 686–705). Grammatical relations are considered to
be a part of traditional grammar. The relations between words are determined by a strict word order in
an English sentence. The relations between the subject and predicate are very specific in a Lithuanian
sentence. These relations are determined according to the forms of the principle components in a
sentence and their role in the SynSS.
The structure in SP is considered to be of great importance in contrastive analysis and is based
on the relations of the verb with the subject and the object in both an English and Lithuanian sentence.
However, the grammatical subject is not always evident and clear. This does not mean though that the
grammatical subject is not a principle part of a sentence. In the Lithuanian language, where relations
between words are indicated by word forms, the subject, having all the specific grammatical
indicators, can actually take any position in the SynSS. In an English sentence, where relations
between words are based on a strict word order, the subject position is always realized before SP.
The study is based on the theory of SP, which is related to the category of verb, being the
structural foundation of a sentence. The concept of predicate, which is equivalent to SP, has developed
from ancient grammars, bringing about different interpretations of the notion, and a variety of
theoretical approaches towards a sentence and its syntactic (grammatical) centre. In traditional
analysis, English sentences generally are classified according to the forms of the predicate. Conjugated
verb forms of the predicate are considered to be the grammatical criteria that determine the boundaries
of a sentence in a text. In the verbocentric theory of a sentence structure the verb is regarded as the
12
main component of a sentence (Jacobs, 1995: 9).
The binary structure of a sentence is accepted by some Lithuanian linguists (Jablonskis, 1957:
445; Sirtautas, 1978: 23; Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988: 56; Labutis, 2002: 202), however, the fact that a
sentence can contain only one component is not rejected (Rytas: It is morning. Lyja: It rains)
(Ambrazas, 1984, 1986: 15–16). A further consideration is the verbocentric conception of a sentence;
i.e. the predicate as the verb organizes a sentence (Ambrazas, 1986: 18; 1996: 493; Balkevičius, 1998:
18; Morkūnas, 1999: 629). In Modern Lithuanian grammar studies, the predicate is treated as being
the basis of the SynSS, which is understood via the SP. The SP expressed by the conjugated verb
forms or VP actually is diverse, referring to syntax, morphology and semantics. The predicate
performs the organizing role in a sentence, determines the case form (nominative case) to the subject
and defines the subject (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 485).
This study examines the nature of the interrelation between syntax and morphology in different
languages: in particular, English and Lithuanian. The modern theory of morphology is based on
Aristotle, who was the first to divide words into categories according to the meaning (Carstairs–
McCarthy, 2000: 264–265). The morphological characteristics and lexical semantics of the verb are
relevant to the morphological categories of the verb (Bybee, 2000: 795). Traditionally, the verb is
treated as the lexical–grammatical class of words related to meaning and function.
The study discusses the structure of SP, which is based on the grammaticalized elements of verb
forms (auxiliary verbs, word–morphemes, flections etc.). The position of every verbal element and its
role depends on its relations with other elements in VP. The structural type of SP expressed by the
verb form determines the function of a sentence in the two contrasting languages, i.e. English and
Lithuanian. In English, the analytical type of the verb as SP has analytical or compound tense forms.
In synthetic Lithuanian, the predicate as the verb preserves the synthetic specificity of the language
type, though it also has analytical structures as well, e.g. voice, reflexivity. The structure of SP cannot
be approached only functionally. Morphologically, the characterization of the internal division and
morphosyntactic structure of the verb as SP is quite challenging (e.g. the verb as the head and affixes
as dependent indicators in the VP). This has a special impact on the features of SynSS. Furthermore,
the arrangement of the constituents in the structure of the VP includes both morphological and
syntactic characteristics that are determined by the morphology of the verb. Consequently, the lexical
characteristics of the verb can determine the syntactic structure of a sentence.
Modern English grammar studies, especially comparative studies in syntactic typology attempt to
integrate morphology into syntax. At present, however, most of the English grammarians have started
treating morphology as a separate part of grammar. Therefore, morphology and syntax are related
grammars governed by the same principles, as they both deal with words: syntax organizes words into
sentences; morphology determines the structure of words (Spencer, 2000: 313). Some syntactic and
13
morphological data coincide functionally and they become important as morphosyntactic phenomena
(Van Valin, LaPolla, 1997: 2).
The morphological expression of the verb form provides information necessary to the syntax.
Thus, theoretical arguments about the necessity to define the morphosyntactic forms of the verb are
discussed in the study (Matthews, 1972; Aronoff, 2000: 345–346). However, it is important to
determine at what stage morphology interferes with syntax. Syntactically, words are organized into
phrases and morphemes build words. English auxiliary verbs as functional words may lose word status
and become phonologically dependent on the head word.
The specific phenomenon of grammaticalization, which clearly derives from morphologization
(auxiliary verbs as indicators of grammatical tense), is discussed in the study. The process of
grammaticalization is indicated by the grammaticality of lexical morphemes or language structures
(syntactic constructions, discourse structures). Syntactic constructions in a language cause changes in
the data related to the basic linguistic structures (semantic, pragmatic, morphologic and syntactic)
(Koefoed, Van Marle, 2001: 1582, 1584). The specific role of a language is related not only with the
expression of a language but also with the expression of meaning, which is to do with linguistic
competence. The grammar rules of an individual language determine the grammaticality of a sentence.
Thus, grammar may be one of the principle means of expressing thought (Vendler, 1996: 1716). The
expression and the content reveal the essential characteristics of the form indicator. The grammatical
flexion is a part of morphology and can be relevant to syntax too (Booij, 2000: 367).
Studies of the grammatical structure of the Lithuanian language are hardly possible without
syntactic data while syntax is relevant to morphology. Therefore, linguistic studies of Lithuanian
syntax (Jablonskis, 1957; Balkevičius, 1963; Ulvydas, 1976; Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988; Paulauskienė,
1982, 1994; Labutis, 2002) cannot ignore morphology. On the contrary, syntax cannot function or be
understood without morphology. However, these two parts of the grammar are often regarded as
having their own boundaries and explained differently or independently of one another.
The interrelations between The syntactic sentence structure (SynSS), the syntactic predicate (SP)
with the semantic sentence structure (SemSS) and the semantic predicate (SemPred) are limited to
general remarks and are not analysed in depth in the thesis. The meaning of a sentence is realized via
the syntactic relations of word forms. The interdependence of syntactic and semantic elements in
different languages, specifically English and Lithuanian, is not the same and it determines the
specificity of a language structure. The same arguments apply to SemPred, which has different
semantic functions. Semantic studies of sentences have revealed that SemPred determines the semantic
roles of arguments in the English and Lithuanian languages.
Part two The types of the English syntactic predicate and the Lithuanian simple predicate deals
with the structural types of SP, the character of their morphosyntactic expression, as well as the
14
analysis of SP in English and Lithuanian. The problem of analyticity and the kinds of the verb as SP
by its structure is discussed in the study.
Traditional English and Lithuanian grammar works present the structural patterns of verb forms
that correspond to SP. The structure of SP is expressed either by a conjugated verb form, or is linked
to other word forms. Based on syntactic constructions, SP can contain a verbal group of one verb form
or two elements, i.e. a verb or verb group with a complement. Furthermore, a predicate can contain
two complements according to their position in a sentence, one of which is called the inner
complement and the other is called the outer complement.
According to modern Lithuanian grammar studies, the patterns and the structure of the predicate
are determined by the grammatical verb forms. Lithuanian linguists use different criteria to determine
the types of predicate, according to expression, structure and content. Some linguists (Jablonskis,
1957: 455, 459) classify predicates by their expression as simple, compound and some kind of
compounding. Other linguists (Balkevičius, 1963: 74) classify predicates by their composition and
expression into simple predicates, compound verbal and nominal predicates, specific compoundings
and mixed predicates (Ulvydas, ed., 1976: 306). Some linguists differentiate the simple predicate
according to its morphological structure (Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988: 61; Labutis, 2002: 229).
The morphosyntactic expression of SP patterns is generally analyzed on the basis of morphology,
syntax and semantics according to its position in a sentence. The structure of morphosyntactic
expression and the boundaries of the English SP mostly do not correspond to the structural types of the
Lithuanian SP. The problem arises when the structural type, morphosyntactic expression and
boundaries of English SP have to be expressed by simple or compound predicates in Lithuanian.
However, it is important to distinguish the grammaticalization of the verb forms of SP and
determine the degree of analyticity and the specificity of compound tenses in English and Lithuanian.
Analytical forms of SP are defined as combinations of verbs paradigmatically related to synthetic
forms that generally organize the system of grammatical tenses. The analytical type of SP is composed
of the auxiliary verbs be and have that are considered as separate word–morphemes to indicate the
grammatical meaning of person, tense, aspect, voice and refer to the morphological level in the
English language. In contrast to English, the Lithuanian SP of analytical type is generally formed by
the auxiliary verb be and the participle. Lithuanian verb affixes (flexions) indicate tense, person and
number; different suffixes indicate aspect and reflexivity and retain the synthetic character using the
means of affixation (bound morphemes).
Part three The structural types of SP and their relationship with the different categories
discusses the relationship of the types of SP with the different categories of the verb that refer to tense,
aspect, person, mood, voice, transitivity and reflexivity. The study concentrates on the realized
translation of the aforementioned categories. It also focuses on the possibilities of indicating syntactic
15
and independent factors that influence the morphosyntactic interpretation of the verb as SP in the two
languages, English and Lithuanian.
The grammatical tense as a morphosyntactic category, expressed by the conjugated verb forms,
refers to the structural type of SP. The term tense applies to a language system. The systemic
correlation between the grammaticalized oppositions of tenses is indicated by verb forms in English
and Lithuanian. The morpheme indicating the grammatical tense in English is considered differently
when compared with the interpretation of the grammatical tense form in Lithuanian. The grammatical
tense is perceived as a syntactic predicate category, which has the morphological expression of the
conjugated verb (Paulauskienė, 1994: 326).
The English language has two tense systems: past vs. present as well as perfect vs. non–
perfect. However, the paradigm of grammatical tenses has been extended by the auxiliary verbs be and
have. These verb forms with the participle compose the forms of aspect, which traditionally relates to
additional grammatical tenses (Quirk et al., 1982: 40; Jacobs, 1995: 185; Huddleston, Pullum, 2002:
116).
The Lithuanian language system has four grammatical tenses: present, past, past iterative and
future. The syntactic temporality causes the appearance of the morphological form of a purely
temporal character. The realization of different time with the different verb forms that indicate the
grammatical tense distinctions of present, past and future vary in both languages. The translation of the
English verb forms as SP into Lithuanian can be explained, if appropriate definitions of tense
meanings are provided and syntactic factors or independent factors influencing the temporal
interpretation are taken into account.
Most grammarians state that such grammatical categories as tense, aspect and mood have a
noticeable effect on each other; i.e. the expression of present and past time cannot be considered
separately from aspect. Tenses and actual language forms of verbs are used to represent time reference
notions (Lewis, 1991; Quirk, 1982; Yule, 1998).
Futurity is expressed specifically in ways that do not allow for comparison in English and
Lithuanian. In the English and Lithuanian grammar studies, the future is explained not as a tense but as
a mood (Paulauskiene, 1979: 199; Comrie, 1995: 1245; Holvoet, Pajėdienė, 2004: 124). Systemic
correlation between the grammaticalized opposition of futurity is encoded in verb forms lexically and
morphologically in both languages. Grammaticalized future time reference satisfies the definition of
tense. The problem is that no verb form in English is associated with future time. The future tense in
English is not based on simple distinctions in time. Traditional grammarians have noted that the modal
and auxiliary will could be used with a verb to refer to future time. However, will and shall are only
two of the auxiliary verbs that occur in combinations used to refer to future time.
The analysis shows that syntactic temporality in modal assessment causes the appearance of
16
morphological forms of the future and changes in a certain arrangement of an action when translating
into Lithuanian because Lithuanian encodes morphological predication syntactically. The semantic
peculiarities of futurity in syntactic structures are highlighted in the study.
The study focuses on the internal temporal contour of verbs as predicates and on the
importance of distinguishing continuative and perfective aspects, when translating from Lithuanian
into English and vice versa, and indicating time references of tenses with their correct analytic and
synthetic forms. Tense and aspect as the grammatical categories of the conjugated verbs, are perceived
as syntactic–predicate categories in English and Lithuanian. They have the morphological expression
of a conjugated verb and are treated as corresponding to the semantic properties of time reference.
Both English and Lithuanian encode aspectual predication syntactically and locate it at the
interface of inflectional morphology and lexical semantics. When dealing with aspect it is important to
differentiate between grammatical and lexical expressions of the internal time concept of a situation.
Thus, the conceptual distinction between the same grammatical forms of verbs of continuative aspect
involves a different perspective and time references in both languages.
In Lithuanian, aspect as a semantic and syntactic property of the verb is not morphologized. In
Lithuanian, aspectual meanings of verb forms are expressed by prefixes and adverbs of time. Some
verbs have dual class membership. For instance, a verb may denote an action and a process in different
contexts. Prefixes change the aspectual character of a verb by modifying the verbal meaning in a
variety of ways (Lithuanian Grammar, 1997: 221).
In English, the meaning of past iterativity can be indicated syntactically, e.g. would, used to, (aux.
v. [have] + past particip.), (aux. v. [be] + present particip.), and by lexical semantic means (often,
frequently, seldom, twice etc.). Iterativity does not have morphological indicators for the past. Some
English verbs (knock, jump etc.) have an inherent semantic meaning for iterativity (Huddleston,
Pullum, 2002: 123). The Lithuanian past iterative tense differs from the simple past only by the
character of the action as an aspectual variant of the past tense. However, some Lithuanian linguists
regard it as a tense. Traditionally the time value of Lithuanian verb forms of the past simple and
iterative tenses is the same. The past iterative tense and time paradigm refers to meaning which is due
to traditional usage in Lithuanian (Holvoet, Čižik, 2004(b): 142).
The category of person refers to an SP expressed by the verb form and its relation to the subject.
The grammatical indicator of a person to the verb form indicates the relation of the action to the
speech–act.
The study overviews the specific English constructions It is and There is that are interpreted
differently by English and Lithuanian linguists. Impersonality in a sentence is not strictly related to the
absence of a grammatical subject as the subject position cannot be left empty in an English sentence
(e.g. It‘s raining. There is a book on the table). In the English language the concept of impersonality is
17
defined by the predicate. In an English sentence, it can replace the actual subject and therefore takes
on the function of the subject in the structure. The position of the subject may remain empty in a
Lithuanian sentence. The notion of impersonality depends on the structure of the language.
Mood expressed by verb forms of SP refers to the category of predicativity in English and
Lithuanian. Mood expresses modality, i.e., the speaker’s attitude towards the content of the utterance.
Modality includes a number of meanings, which find expression in a variety of morphological,
syntactical and lexical ways. The imperative and the subjunctive moods are not considered to have
grammatical features of meaning. Mood is dependent upon the situation and intonation of the
utterance. The speaker’s attitude of volition, expressed by the imperative mood, refers to an action,
which is possible or desirable. The subjunctive mood has the semantic basis of unreality and it
indicates action, which under certain circumstances would be possible or desirable in the present or in
the future. The imperative and subjunctive moods in Lithuanian are not inflected for tenses, except that
the distinction of temporal meaning within the subjunctive mood is based on its simple and compound
forms (Lithuanian grammar 1997: 254–258). The synonymic usage of the indicative mood
semantically determines the imperative and the subjunctive moods.
The opinions of English and Lithuanian linguists differ in regard to the number of moods in the
two languages. Both languages have three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative (Huddleston,
Pullum, 2002: 17; Paulauskienė, 1994: 310). Some Lithuanian linguists (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 304)
include the oblique mood in the mood system because of its stylistic meaning. The oblique mood is
expressed by participles indicating the nominative case and is used without any auxiliary verb.
The verbs, composing the types of SP, refer to transitivity, which is considered to be a
morphosyntactic and semantic category determined mostly by the meaning of the verb. In structural
syntax, the transitive verb is related to the direct object, which is expressed by the accusative and by
the genitive (in negative constructions) in the Lithuanian language. (In)transitivity is defined according
to the interrelation with the direct object, i.e. the transition of the action into the direct object.
Voice is a semantic, functional and morphosyntactic category; it refers to subject – object
relations inside the syntactic sentence structure and changes the grammatical functions of the same
element. Traditionally voice is related to SP, expressed by active and passive verb forms. The active
forms of a verb involve a direct and indirect object and every direct object can take the subject
position of a passive construction in a sentence. Such semantic categories as agent, patient or affected
object are relevant to voice and can reveal the meaning of a sentence, events and specific order or
hierarchy, which determines the relations between the agent and the patient. The relationship between
active and passive in the syntactic structure is related to lexical valency.
In the syntactic interpretation of a sentence, reflexivity is related to transitivity. It identifies an
action directed to the object. The reflexive element is a semantic component in the grammatical
18
structure of a verb as SP. The lexical and grammatical part of a reflexive element is related to the verb;
it organizes a sentence and also determines the meaning of a sentence. In English, as a non–inflected
type of language, SP can contain reflexive meanings indicated syntactically. Reflexivity refers to the
specific grammatical element in a sentence expressed by the pronoun, which has the same
interpretation as the NP. In the modern English language the function of reflexivity is performed by
personal pronouns formed by a reflexive affix (sg. -self, pl. -selves). Reflexivity indicates the object of
an action, which is the same performer of an action in a sentence. These pronouns indicate the
category of voice, person, number and gender merely by being included in analytical constructions.
Traditionally reflexivity is considered as a semantic, functional and morphosyntactic category related
to SP, which is expressed by the oppositions of reflexive and non–reflexive forms of the verb in the
Lithuanian language.
Part four The types of the English SP and the Lithuanian compound predicates overviews the
structural type of SP comprising a conjugated verb form and a verbal component as a complement:
P(vf + inf. / gerund.). The type of SP comprises the verb form as a linking verb and the nominal
element as a predicative P(copula + predicat.[N / Adj.]). The concept predicative refers to the SP. The
predicative, generally expressed by a nominal, defines a subject syntactically as well as comprising the
structural type of SP and determines its meaning. The predicative attributes perform the syntactic
function. The predicative attribute is expressed by the participle and forms the type of the English SP,
which is very problematic in Lithuanian.
The study discusses the subject and verb in terms of SP agreement in the English and Lithuanian
languages.
Conclusions:
1. Typologically, grammatical verb forms determine patterns of word relations, the composition
of SP and the variety of its types in the English and Lithuanian syntactic sentence structure. The role
of the verb as SP in a sentence, the specificity and the degree of analyticity, and the equivalence of the
compound tenses are determined by the specificity of the structure of the SP in both languages.
2. A variety of linguistic terms, related to SP and used in grammar studies, are very specific in
meaning in both languages.
3. Morphological, semantic and syntactic characteristics of the types of SP, the tendency of
grammatical expression of verb and the relation between forms of verbs are identified in the study.
4. The analytical verb form of SP – P(aux. v. + particip.) is a characteristic of the English
language. Verb forms of the same structure in Lithuanian are either problematic, or they are expressed
by a simple predicate P(vf). The Lithuanian SP of the analytical structure can be regarded as an
intermediate link between the simple and the compound predicate. Moreover, opinions differ with
regard to analytical verb forms, the expression and structure of SP in English and Lithuanian.
19
5. The correlation between verb form as SP and the grammatical categories of tense, aspect,
person and impersonality, mood, voice, transitivity and reflexivity often differ by their grammatical
expression, indicators and structural interpretation in English and Lithuanian as follows:
- Grammatical tenses of the English SP are determined by the systemic correlation between
oppositions of grammaticalized tenses, encoded lexically and morphologically. Therefore, the
translation of the English present, past and future into Lithuanian is based on semantic and
syntactic factors influencing certain time interpretation. The verb forms composing the English
SP type express the future semantically. However, the meaning of grammatical verb forms of the
future has a greater variety of interpretations compared with the grammatical expression of SP,
its form and meaning of the future tense in Lithuanian. The meaning of grammatical indicators of
time has no influence on the interpretation of the future in a sentence. Structural types of the
English SP comprising modal verbs with the infinitive can be translated into Lithuanian by
means of the morphological form of the future tense, with certain time adjustments of meaning.
Morphological indicators of flections, syntactic characteristics and lexical semantics determine
the predication in the Lithuanian language.
- The English types of SP composed of conjugated verb forms express grammatical tense and
aspect syncretically. However, the nature and characteristics of the verb forms are the most
discussed problems. The aspect in English shows the manner of the action expressed by
morphological, lexical and syntactic means. The English continuous / non–continuous tense
forms and the syntactic constructions of the conjugated verb form with the infinitive or gerund
can be considered to have different aspects of action (the beginning of an action, continuous
action, the end of an action). In Lithuanian, the grammatical aspect (continuous and perfect
forms) of verbs is expressed by various prefixes and suffixes that drive the semantics of SP.
- In the Lithuanian language the past iterativity tense is a specific opposition of the past
tense. It is equivalent to the verb forms of the simple past tense, present perfect tense that are
expressed syntactically using adverbs of frequency, the auxiliary verb would, as well as the
construction used to, in the English language.
- The grammatical indicators of person of the English verb as SP are limited and differ from
the expression of person in the Lithuanian language. The general tendency of specific cases in
the usage of grammatical indicators of person is generally taken into account in translating from
English into Lithuanian.
- The concept of impersonality defines the predicate, but it does not define the sentence
formed with it is or there is in the English language. The predicate centre (grammatical) of a
Lithuanian impersonal sentence can be formed of a predicate alone expressed by an impersonal
verb form, without any grammatical subject. Generally, the predicate centre (grammatical) of the
20
impersonal sentence is organized, using the forms of the principle components of a sentence that
indicate the absence of a relation with the grammatical category of a person.
- The English and Lithuanian mood is expressed by conjugated verbs and it creates the
system of morphological forms (synthetic and analytical, i.e. grammatical tenses and aspect
related to person and number). Verb forms of mood, composing a type of SP, show mismatches
related to grammatical indicators and meaning in the two languages. The forms of infinitive,
imperative and subjunctive mood do not possess specific morphemes to indicate the tense and,
when used as predicates, they indicate time in both languages. The English and Lithuanian SP
corresponding to the forms of the imperative mood, in the act of speech with respect to
intonation, have a variety of modal aspects – from a categorical command to an obedient request.
However, the modal meaning of the imperative mood depends largely on the context, speech
tone and language type, but not on the grammatical form. The forms of irrealis (subjunctive
mood) are discussed and analyzed in relation to grammatical tense. The English SP types that are
equivalent to the verb forms expressing the oblique mood in the Lithuanian language are already
determined in technical texts. The forms of the oblique mood are often considered as the
category of evidentiality. The conjugated verb forms of the simple and compound predicate
correspond to functions of the oblique mood. The oblique mood has a specific meaning and
morphological expression and it differs from the other moods.
- The realisation of (in)transitivity refers to the morphosyntactic expression of verb forms as
SP that depend on the internal semantic characteristics of the verb and the action directed to the
object.
- The passive voice of a verb as SP is used when the object, to which the action is directed, is
either more important than the performer of an action, or when the performer of the action is
unknown, or when there is no necessity to mention him / her in both languages. The passive
voice assists in revealing and determining the nature of objectivity and personality in the
language of science.
- The realisation of reflexivity is based on the internal semantic characteristics of a transitive
verb in English. In Lithuanian, SP is expressed by the grammaticalized forms of (in)transitive
verbs that become clear in the syntactical and semantic interpretation of a sentence.
6. The type of English SP of the analytical structure can be composed of conjugated verb forms
related either to the infinitive or the gerund as a complement P(mod. v. + inf.), P(vt + inf. / gerund.).
The other type of SP can comprise a linking verb with a noun or an adjective as a predicative
P(copulative v. + N / Adj. / Pron. / Num.). The English and Lithuanian SP has a variety of composition
at different levels. The analytical verb forms are more specific for the English SP type, whereas the
Lithuanian SP types are determined syntactically. The English SP types of the analytical structure,
21
corresponding to the Lithuanian compound verbal predicates, have lexical meaning and structural
specificity (meaning of tense and aspect with specific indicators or clause). The syntactic form of the
English gerund is neither conjugated, nor shows the number, whereas the Lithuanian participle as
complement in the predicate is inflected and indicates grammatical tense, gender and number.
- The type of English SP composed of modal auxiliary verbs with the infinitive corresponds
to the Lithuanian compound verbal predicate. Comparing such types of SP, the differences
related to the morphosyntactic and semantic specificity of modal verbs are highlighted in both
languages. Conjugated verbs having the modal meaning with the infinitive comprise the type of
the Lithuanian compound SP. Some of the English conjugated verbs do not show modality;
therefore, they are translated into Lithuanian as verbs with modal meaning. The types of the
Lithuanian predicates composed of modal verbs using the infinitive, i.e. structurally, are
considered as compound verbal predicates. The semantic group of verbs, having the meaning of
beginning, continuation or finishing etc., forms the characteristic type of SP expressed
syntactically in the both languages.
- The English and Lithuanian SP types comprising the conjugated verb form with the
infinitive as an object, which is considered as independent verb, is also discussed.
- The analytical type of English SP composed of a copula or other copulative verb with a
nominal element as a predicative is generally equivalent to the same type of Lithuanian SP. The
structure of a conjugated copulative verb related to a nominal complement determines the
meaning and function of SP. The SP, containing a nominal predicative, is syntactically
dependent on the linking verb because the background of a sentence cannot be organized
independently by a nominal alone as it needs a verb. The English and Lithuanian SP comprising
the copula be / būti with a nominal element can also have grammatical indicators of tense,
aspect, mood and voice. Other English linking verbs are generally classified according to their
meaning; they are distributed syntactically (according to their performed function) in Lithuanian
grammar works. The English SP comprising a copulative verb relates a subject with a
predicative. The English SP comprises a predicative, which can be expressed by a noun, a noun
phrase or prepositional constructions, whereas a predicative as noun has grammatical indicators
of different case forms as nominative, genitive, dative, instrumental in the Lithuanian language.
7. Agreement in person and number between subject and verb of SP depends on the structure of a
subject and the nature of a predicate in the English and Lithuanian languages. Indicators of number
and person in a verb are marked morphologically in the two languages. Agreement of the compound
predicate with the subject is very specific in the Lithuanian language. A predicative expressed by an
adjective agrees in number, gender and, sometimes, in case whereas a predicative noun agrees only in
number and case.
22
ĮVADAS
Vertimas iš anglų kalbos į lietuvių kalbą ypač aktualus dabar, plečiantis ES, kurioje norima
išsaugoti net ir mažos tautos tradicijas ir kalbą. Anglų kalba yra reikšminga ne tik šią kalbą kaip
pagrindinę komunikacijos priemonę vartojančioms bendruomenėms, bet šiuo metu ir tarptautiniam
bendravimui. Lietuvių kalba yra svarbi ir kaip tautos viena iš tapatybės išlaikymo atrama.
Lingvistikoje lietuvių kalbos reikšmę ypač iškėlė istorinė lyginamoji kalbotyra, bet ją tiria ir kalbų
tipologija, bendroji kalbotyra, socialinė lingvistika ir kitos kalbų studijos. Naudinga stebėti, kaip
lietuvių kalba prisitaiko prie naujų gyvenimo sąlygų, kaip ji gali realizuoti sistemoje slypinčias
potencijas (abstrakcijoms reikšti, suaktyvinti kai kuriuos žodžių darybos modelius).
Darbo tyrimo objektas. Darbo objektu pasirinktas sintaksinių predikatų (toliau tik SP, arba
tariniai) tipai ir jų morfosintaksinis realizavimas anglų ir lietuvių kalbose.
Darbe neišvengiamai susiduriama su pagrindinių terminų skirtybėmis. Dabartiniuose anglų
kalbos gramatikos darbuose dažnai terminas predikatas (ang. predicate) vartojamas ne viena reikšme:
predikatu čia vadinama viena iš pagrindinių sakinio dalių (Onions, 1971: 4; Burton-Roberts, 1998: 35)
arba vienintelis pagrindinis sakinio centras ir semantiniai vienetai, nuo kurių gali priklausyti
potencialūs ir realizuoti visi kiti sintaksinės struktūros (konstrukcijos) elementai (Jacobs, 1995: 12;
Huddleston, Pullum, 2002: 50). Pirmąja reikšme vartojamas predikatas anglų kalbos darbuose atitinka
tai, kas lietuvių kalbos sintaksėse vadinama tariniu. Todėl, norint abejų kalbų darbuose šias sąvokas
gretinti, tenka anglų kalbotyroje įprastiniam terminui predikatas pridėti modifikatorių (pažyminį)
sintaksinis.
Predikato sąvoka paprastai siejama su predikatumu. Lietuvių kalbotyroje įsigalėjusi predikacijos
sąvoka suvokiama įvairiai ir gana skirtingai: predikatumu laikytas bendrasis sakinio turinio santykis su
tikrove, reiškiamas modalumu, laiko ir asmens kategorijomis (Balkevičius, 1963: 17), ar veiksnio ir
tarinio tarpusavio santykis (Sirtautas, Grenda, 1988: 17; Ambrazas, red., 1996: 487; Labutis, 2002:
100). Predikacija suvokiama apibendrinta prasme ir siejama su kalbos aktu (Ambrazas, 1999. In:
Morkūnas, 1999: 495, 496).
Sakinio predikatyvumas yra glaudžiai susijęs su veiksmažodžio gramatinėmis kategorijomis –
laiku, modalumu, nuosaka – ir jų reikšme. SP sudarančios anglų kalbos sakinio klausimo ir neigimo
veiksmažodžio formos, asmenuojamųjų veiksmažodžių formos su dalyviu / gerundijumi, bendratimi
(aspekto, rūšies, refleksyvo, modalinių veiksmažodžių su bendratimi / dalyviu), o lietuvių kalbos
veiksmažodžio būti formos su dalyviu (sudurtinių laikų veiksmažodžių formos), vadinamos
analitinėmis. Sintaksinėje sakinio struktūroje (toliau SinSS) anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP formas sąlygoja
veiksmažodžio gramatinės formos, kurios nemažu mastu lemia žodžių tarpusavio ryšio modelius bei
23
sandaros tipus. Anglų kalbos SP sudarančių veiksmažodžių formų gramatiškumas ir jų apimtis dažnai
nesutampa su lietuvių kalbos tarinių struktūriniais tipais.
Darbe SP netapatinamas su veiksmažodžiu, nes jis gali turėti formų, kurios neina SP (plg. anglų
kalbos gerundijų, lietuvių kalbos dalyvį atributinėje pozicijoje, bendratį tikslo aplinkybės pozicijoje,
padalyvį ir pusdalyvį, niekada nesudarančius atskiro sakinio centro ir neinančius tariniu).
Anglų kalbai būdingas analitinės struktūros SP tipas, sudaromas iš atskirų žodžių ir morfemų
(pagalbinio veiksmažodžio, dalyvio ar bendraties) (tęstinė forma [is working], atliktinė forma [have
modified], rūšis [is done], ateities laiko forma [will do]) bei kitų rodiklių (afiksų), kurie žymi
gramatinę reikšmę. Gretinant anglų kalbos SP analitinį veiksmažodį su lietuvių kalbos tariniu (you
have emphasized: esate pabrėžęs, was closed : buvo uždarytas), matyti, kad lietuviškasis analitinės
struktūros atitikmuo paprastai sudaromas su asmenuojamuoju veiksmažodžiu būti ir dalyviu su
afiksais. Taigi darbe neišvengiamai tenka atsižvelgti į sintaksės ir morfologijos santykių sandūras.
Darbe aptariami anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP struktūriniai tipai, kurie susieti su savita vienos ir
kitos kalbos sistemine asmenuojamųjų veiksmažodžių formų raiškos ir sandaros specifika.
Ginamieji teiginiai:
1. Anglų kalbos sintaksės faktai ir jų atitikmenys lietuvių kalboje yra aiškinami skirtingai dėl
skirtingos tų kalbų darbuose įsitvirtinusios terminijos. Teorinių savitumų gausu įvairiomis kryptimis
plėtojamuose anglų kalbos gramatikos tyrimuose, tačiau teorinių požiūrių įvairovės jau nestokoja šios
srities darbai ir lietuvių kalbotyros.
2. Sintaksinio centro viduje struktūriškai aktyvesnis yra SP. Tariniu (SP) priskiriamas požymis
nurodo to požymio turėtoją – paprastai subjektą (veiksnį).
3. Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP gretinimas atskleidžia sisteminį ryšį tarp asmenuojamųjų
veiksmažodžių sugramatintų formų ir jų raiškos, o morfologinių ir sintaksinių požymių savitumą lemia
kalbos tipas. Veiksmažodžio analitiškų gramatinių formų vertinimas priklauso ir nuo SP sampratos.
4. Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP, reiškiamų veiksmažodžiais, gramatinimo laipsnis grindžiamas
morfologiniu, sintaksiniu ir semantiniu kriterijumi. Anglų kalbos SP sudarančios analitinės
veiksmažodžių formos su pagalbiniais veiksmažodžiais, lemiančiais gramatines savybes, priklauso
morfologijos lygmeniui, lietuvių kalboje jas paprastai atitinka vientisinis tarinys. Lietuvių kalbos
analitinės veiksmažodžių konstrukcijos gali turėti paprastųjų formų sinonimų aiškioms vientisinėms
asmenuojamosioms veiksmažodžių formoms. Lietuvių kalbos tariniai, sudaryti su modaliniais
veiksmažodžiais ir bendratimi, struktūros atžvilgiu paprastai laikomi sudėtiniais tariniais ir priklauso
sintaksiniam lygmeniui.
5. Gretinant anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP struktūrinius tipus, matyti, kad kalbos specialistų požiūris į
SP raišką nėra visai vienodas. Lietuvių lingvistikoje vis dar diskutuojamas veiksmažodžių
analitiškumas, nevienodai siejamas su struktūriniu tarinio tipu, jo modeliu ir raiška. Lietuvių kalboje
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analitinės raiškos tarinys gali būti laikomas tarpine grandimi tarp vientisinio ir sudurtinio tarinio. Tai
lemia vienų ar kitų tipų tarinio ribas.
Darbo tikslas – ištirti anglų ir lietuvių kalbų įvairių SP struktūrinių tipų, morfologinių ir
sintaksinių požymių savitumą, nustatyti ir įvertinti gramatinių formų raiškos polinkius.
Darbo uždaviniai. Tiriant anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP struktūrinius tipus, jų morfologinius ir
sintaksinius ypatumus, keliami šie uždaviniai:
- nustatyti anglų kalbos lingvistinių terminų atitikmenis gretinamojoje lietuvių kalboje;
- aptarti teorinės SinSS analizės ir SP sampratas struktūriniu, funkciniu bei semantiniu požiūriu;
- apibendrinti tipologinius anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP struktūros ir morfosintaksinės raiškos
savitumus, nustatyti SP analitiškumą ir SP sandaros įvairovę;
- pagrįsti anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP santykius su laiko, aspekto, asmens ir beasmeniškumo,
nuosakos, rūšies, tranzityvumo ir refleksyvo (sangrąžos) kategorijomis, aptarti su SP susijusių
gramatinių kategorijų ir formų realizacijos savitumus, išryškėjančius verčiant techninius tekstus
iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą;
- apžvelgti anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP struktūrinius tipus, sudaromus su jungtimi ir veiksmažodiniu
bei vardažodiniu komponentais, aptarti jų sandaros morfosintaksinių formų polinkius verčiant
techninius tekstus iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą;
- apžvelgti anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP derinimo su veiksniu savitumus.
Ištyrimo laipsnis. Teorinių savitumų ypač gausu įvairiomis kryptimis plėtojamuose anglų
kalbos gramatikos tyrimuose. Taigi tenka atsirinkti ir nuspręsti, kurių krypčių ir kokie teoriniai
principai labiausiai tinka sprendžiant pagrindinius šio darbo uždavinius.
Darbe remiamasi naujausiais deskriptyvinės (aprašomosios) ir norminės (preskriptyvinės)
krypties gramatikų darbais ir požiūriais. Aprašomoji ir norminamoji, t.y. tradicinė, gramatikos iš dalies
sutampa, tačiau turi ir tam tikrų skirtumų. Jose naudojamasi nuo antikos laikų susiformavusiais
gramatinės sandaros aptarimo būdais, paremtais iš dalies Aristotelio logika, iš dalies – kalbos formų
reikšmėmis. Tradicinės gramatikos sąvoka, vyraujanti ir lietuvių kalbos mokyklų vadovėliuose,
remiasi deskriptyvizmu, vartojamu visose norminės gramatikos darbuose kalbos praktikai ir mokymui.
Tradicinė gramatika laikoma pagrindu dabartinėms lingvistinėms teorijoms ir gramatikoms, tačiau
tiriant kitokios struktūros anglų kalbą, tradicinės gramatikos teorijos nepakanka: ji negali paaiškinti
skirtingų anglų ir lietuvių kalbų struktūros, tų kalbų sąvokų specifikos, siejamos su skirtingomis
tradicijomis, žodynu ir analize. Tradicinė gramatika tiria sakinį sudarančias sąvokas: veiksnį, tarinį,
papildinį, predikatyvą (papildymą arba vardinę tarinio dalį), frazę ir kt. Dabartinės lingvistikos teorijos
ir jų kalbų tyrinėjimų analizės papildo vadinamąją tradicinę gramatiką, kuri paprastai siejama tik su
vienos kalbos studija.
Tačiau deskriptyvinės (aprašomosios) gramatikos požiūris daug kur papildomas ir struktūrinių,
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semantinių bei funkcinių pakraipų įvairių darbų duomenimis. Sujungti įvairių požiūrių sprendimus į
vieną visumą – vienas iš sudėtingiausių gramatikos teorinių uždavinių.
Darbą praplečia morfologijos integracija į sintaksę. Šiame darbe tęsiama Lietuvos lingvistų anglų
ir lietuvių kalbų gretinamieji tipologiniai tyrinėjimai struktūros bei semantikos atžvilgiu. Remiantis
anglų gramatikų tipologiniais darbais bei gretinamosios krypties anglų ir lietuvių gramatikų principais
ir požiūriais, tiriama anglų ir lietuvių sakinių sandaros tipologija, sakinio dėmenų tipologija, žodžių
tvarkos vaidmuo sakinyje, morfosintaksinės realizacijos būdai sintaksiniu, semantiniu ir morfologiniu
aspektu.
Šiame darbe analizuojamas sakinio sandaros ir turinio pamatą sudarantys dviejų skirtingo tipo
kalbų SP ir jų struktūrinių tipų morfosintaksinis realizavimas daug tyrinėtas anglų kalbos gramatikos
darbuose, tačiau ligi šiol mažai aptartas lietuvių kalbos moksliniuose techniniuose tekstuose. Analizės
duomenys lyginami tipologiškai ir nustatoma, kaip tų raiškos atitikmenų laikomasi praktiškai verčiant
minėtus tekstus iš anglų kalbos į lietuvių kalbą ir atvirkščiai.
SP priklauso funkcijų klasei. Taigi abiejų kalbų gretinimo kryptis remiasi požiūriu nuo funkcijos
prie formos ir reikšmės tyrimo – tai padeda aiškiau atskleisti abiejų kalbų struktūrines ir
morfosintaksinės sandaros SP tipų skirtybes.
Darbe taikomi pagrindiniai tyrimo metodai:
Sintaksės tipologijos metodas (Zaefferer, 1995: 1109–1110). Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų tipologijoje
sintaksės ir morfologijos informacija yra ypač svarbi tiriant SP, o sintaksės ir morfologijos išskyrimas
atsižvelgiant į šių kalbų struktūrinę sandarą tampa centriniu aspektu.
2. Kontrastinis metodas (Albrecht, 2004: 246–249). Kontrastinė lingvistika siejama su sisteminiu
kalbų lygiu, kuriame yra užkoduota žmogaus tarpusavio ryšio kognityvinė patirtis. Kontrastinė analizė
ir vertimo studijos teoriniu požiūriu susiję tyrimai, tačiau kontrastinėje analizėje vertimas suvokiamas
kaip papildomas tyrimo metodas. Vertimas siejamas su teksto reikšmės perteikimu į kitą kalbą. Todėl
vertimo funkcija suprantama kaip kalbinė veikla teksto lygmenyje. Gretinamų kalbų leksinių ir
sintaksės sistemų ekvivalentiškumą lemia vertimui būdingi kriterijai (Neubert, 2004: 330–335).
Kontrastiniu metodu paprastai tiriami vertimo ekvivalentai kalbų sistemos lygmenyje, gretinant
skirtingų kalbų tekstus (Chesterman, 1998: 28; 2004: 93–100).
Išeities tašku imami anglų kalbos SP ir jų lietuviškieji tarinių atitikmenys, gretinamuoju
tipologiniu požiūriu nustatomas abiejų kalbų gramatinės raiškos, jų sandaros savitumas. SP tipai
grindžiami ir struktūra, ir semantika, ir teksto specifika. Skirtingų anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP
struktūroje gramatinės formos ir reikšmės santykis ypatingas.
3. Deskriptyvinis metodas (Ivir, 2004: 278; Morkūnas, 1999: 224). Deskriptyviniu metodu
aprašoma atskirai kiekvienos kalbos SP tipų struktūra, pasitelkiant gramatikos taisykles. Anglų ir
lietuvių kalbų SP, jų morfosintaksinių struktūrų norminimas ir svarūs kontrastinės analizės tyrimai
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grindžiami norminės gramatikos principais ir jų faktais bei stiliaus įvairove. Aprašant anglų ir lietuvių
kalbų SP gramatinę sandarą pagal formų tarpusavio ryšius, remiamasi veiksmažodžio apsupties
tyrimu. SP apibūdinamas pagal visumą pozicijų, kurias jis gali turėti kitų elementų atžvilgiu,
nustatomos ir tiriamos formų klasės, tipai, jų struktūra.
4. Statistinis metodas (Richards, Schmidt, 2002: 243). Šiuo metodu nustatomi anglų ir lietuvių
kalbų SP struktūrinių tipų dažniai. Remiantis mokslinių technininių tekstų bei tų tekstų tipų analize,
darbe atliktas anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SP veiksmažodžių morfosintaksinės raiškos struktūrinių tipų, jų
formų polinkių nuodugnus kokybinis ir kiekybinis tyrimas (žr. priedus).
Darbo aktualumas ir naujumas. Aktualu ištirti anglų ir lietuvių kalbų SinSS ir suvokti, ar
vykstant kalbų interferencijai lietuvių kalbos sakinys nesupanašėja su anglų kalbos SinSS modeliais.
Nefleksinio tipo anglų kalboje žodžių tvarka yra gramatiškai fiksuota: daiktavardžiai ir būdvardžiai
nekaitomi ar mažai kaitomi, gramatinė reikšmė nusakoma sintaksės priemonėmis – žodžių tvarka,
kurią gali koreguoti sakinio tipas ir jo funkcija (What role does quality management play in your
practice? Avoid breathing dust!).
Lietuvių kalba, būdama fleksinio tipo, žodžių tvarką turi palyginti ne tokią griežtą. Žodžių
gramatines reikšmes rodo pačios žodžių formos – jas fiksuoja galūnės, kaitybos ir darybos priesagos:
pvz., vardininko linksnio gramatinė reikšmė išryškėja iš jo sintagminio (linijinio) ryšio su
veiksmažodžiu (Elektros jungiklis veikia ir kaip avarinis stabdiklis [nom]) ir iš jo paradigminio ryšio
su kitais linksniais (Patariama priežiūros etiketėje paaiškinti šį ženklą [acc.]. Užsegimo konstrukcija
turi būti geros kokybės [gen.]. Taigi geriausias būdas yra išlikti ramiam [dat.] ir kt.).
SP, jo struktūrų ir morfosintaksinės sandaros realizacijos savitumo apibendrinimas anglų ir
lietuvių kalbose gali padėti verčiant iš vienos kalbos į kitą. Sakiniai tiriami turinio ir formos aspektais,
ypač pabrėžiamas teksto vaidmuo SP analizės įprasminimo realizacijai, kalbos reiškinių sintaksinių
struktūrų funkcionavimui.
Analizuojant mokslinio techninio stiliaus kalbos priemones, stengiamasi suderinti aprašomosios,
norminamosios, kontrastinės, struktūrinės, semantinės ir funkcinės teorijų koncepcijas, įvertinti šių
skirtingų teorijų požiūrius į SP, atskleisti dėsnius bei santykius tarp įvairių gramatinių reiškinių,
siejamų su SP struktūriniu tipu ir morfosintaksine jo sandara. Gretinant ir verčiant tokius dviejų kalbų
tekstus su SP, pirmiausia nustatomi adekvatumo sąlygos ir vartosenos tikslumo, aiškumo reikalavimai.
Teorinė ir praktinė darbo vertė ir pritaikymas. Darbe apžvelgta su SP struktūrinių tipų,
siejamų su savita sistemine asmenuojamųjų veiksmažodžių formų raiškos ir morfosintaksinės sandaros
specifika, su šiomis problemomis susiję požiūriai, įvertinti ir pritaikomi prie bendrosios pasirinkto
darbo krypties. Tiriama tiksli kalbos kaip dinaminio proceso SP struktūrinių tipų, jo formų
morfosintaksinė sandara, taikomi nagrinėjimo ir analizės bei modeliavimo principai.
Praktiškai šis darbas galėtų būti naudingas vertėjams, verčiantiems mokslinę techninę literatūrą
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iš anglų į lietuvių kalbą ir iš lietuvių į anglų, anglų kalbos mokytojams, dėstytojams bei studentams
filologams, studijuojantiems struktūrinę sintaksę, SP ir jų morfosintaksinį realizavimą anglų ir lietuvių
kalbose.
Surinktų pavyzdžių tekstai gali būti panaudoti kuriant mokslinės techninės kalbos tekstyną ir
ieškant dviejų kalbų terminijos atitikmenų.
Faktų šaltiniai. Anglų kalbos SP struktūrinių tipų ir jų morfosintaksinės sandaros atitikmenys
lietuvių kalboje nustatomi, remiantis anglų kalbos moksliniais techniniais tekstais jų vertimais į
lietuvių kalbą ir – atvirkščiai.
Išanalizuota daugiau kaip septyni tūkstančiai aštuoni šimtai keturiasdešimt anglų ir lietuvių kalbų
sakinių. Tiriamoji medžiaga apima dvidešimt šešis skirtingų tipų tekstus – dokumentų, techninių
instrukcijų, mokslo populiarinimo, mokslinių tyrimų aprašų, mokslinių straipsnių, metodikos. Darbe
panaudoti trys šimtai šešiasdešimt penki anglų kalbos sakinių pavyzdžiai ir jų atitikmenys lietuvių
kalboje. Pasitaiko tų pačių sakinių pavyzdžių su SP tipais, tačiau jie analizuojami atsižvelgiant į
skyriaus temą (su laiko, aspekto ar derinimo). Nurodomi ir galimi sakinių, ir SP variantai, neužfiksuoti
vertimų tekstuose. Atsiribojama nuo tekstuose pasitaikančių kalbos kultūros klaidų, kurios neturi
įtakos SP struktūrinių tipų realizavimui.
Atskleidžiant abiejų kalbų struktūrines ir morfosintaksinės sandaros SP tipų skirtybes ir
remiantis kontrastine analize, darbe pavyzdžiai tiriami ir grupuojami remiantis SP struktūra, aiškinami
abiejų kalbų SP tipų ir jų morfosintaksinės raiškos formų skirtumai, verčiant siejami su reikšmės
ekvivalentiškumu. Statistiškai nustatomos grynųjų ir analitinių formų opozicijos, tų formų vartojimo
polinkiai. Aptariamas vertimo strategijos alternatyvių formų pasirinkimas ir tendencijos.
Mokslinio techninio teksto SinSS įvairi, tačiau jam nebūdingi nepilnieji sakiniai. Sakiniuose
žodžių tvarka paprastai stilistiškai neutrali. Dažnos lietuvių kalbos beasmenės sakinių konstrukcijos ir
neveikiamosios rūšies konstrukcijos įprasminamos perteikiant informaciją, čia pasitelkiama specifinė
terminija ir loginio pobūdžio sintaksinė raiška.
Darbo struktūra. Darbą sudaro įvadas, teorinė dalis, trys sintaksinių predikatų analizės dalys,
išvados, literatūros sąrašas ir priedai.
Darbo pradžioje pateikiamas įvadas. Įvade apibrėžiamas disertacijos tiriamojo darbo objektas,
ginamieji teiginiai, tyrimo tikslas ir uždaviniai, ištyrimo laipsnis, tyrimo metodai, nurodomas darbo
aktualumas ir naujumas šiuolaikinėje kalbotyroje, teorinė ir praktinė darbo vertė ir pritaikymas,
aprašoma pasirinkta mokslinio techninio stiliaus tiriamoji medžiaga ir faktų šaltiniai, darbo struktūra,
darbo aprobavimas bei disertacijos tema skaityti pranešimai konferencijose.
Pirmojoje dalyje Teoriniai sintaksinės sakinio struktūros sampratos ir analizės pagrindai
apžvelgiama SinSS sampata (žr. 1.1.), SP ir sakinio struktūros samprata (žr. 1.2.), SP ir veiksmažodžio
kategorijos samprata (žr. 1.3.), sintaksės bei morfologijos santykių pobūdis (žr. 1.4.). Ribojamasi tik
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bendromis pastabomis apie sakinio sintaksinės struktūros (SinSS) ir sintaksinio predikato (SP) santykį
su semantine sakinio struktūra (SemSS) ir semantiniu predikatu (SemPred) (žr. 1.5.).
Antrojoje dalyje Anglų kalbos sintaksinių predikatų tipai ir lietuvių kalbos vientisiniai tariniai
apžvelgiami apibendrinti SP struktūriniai tipai, jų morfosintaksinė raiškos pobūdis, SP skirstymas
anglų ir lietuvių kalbose (žr. 2.1.). Svarstoma SP analitiškumo problema (žr. 2.2.) ir SP rūšys pagal
sandarą. Čia nurodomi anglų kalbos SP tipai, atitinkantys lietuvių kalbos vientisinius tarinius (žr. 2.3.).
Trečiojoje dalyje Sintaksinių predikatų tipai ir jų santykis su įvairiomis kategorijomis
atskleidžiamas SP tipų santykis su veiksmažodžio kategorijomis: su laiko kategorija (dabarties,
praeities ir ateities laiko realizavimas, žr. 3.1.). Apžvelgiama aspekto kategorija (ir realizavimas, žr.
3.2.), diskutuojamas praeities laiko iteratyvumas (ir realizavimas, žr. 3.3.). Aptariama asmens
kategorija (ir realizavimas, žr. 3.4.), atskirai apžvelgiami specifinių anglų kalbos sakinių It is / was ir
There is / are SP ir juos atitinkantys lietuvių kalbos beasmenių sakinių tariniai (ir realizavimas, žr.
3.5.). Aptariami SP tipai ir jų santykis su nuosakos kategorija (įvairių nuosakų realizavimas, žr. 3.6.).
Svarstomas SP santykis su tranzityvumo kategorija (tranzityvumo realizavimas, žr. 3.7.), su rūšies
kategorija (aktyvo ir pasyvo realizavimas, žr. 3.8.). Atskleidžiamas SP santykis su refleksyvo
kategorija (refleksyvo realizavimas, žr. 3.9.).
Ketvirtojoje dalyje Anglų kalbos sintaksinių predikatų tipai ir lietuvių kalbos sudėtiniai tariniai
trumpai apžvelgiami anglų kalbos SP ir lietuvių kalbos sudėtiniai tariniai (žr. 4.). Ketvirtosios dalies
pirmajame skyriuje Sintaksinių predikatų struktūriniai tipai su veiksmažodiniu dėmeniu (žr. 4.1.)
aprašomi SP struktūriniai tipai su modaliniais veiksmažodžiais (ir realizavimas, žr. 4.1.1.), su faziniais
veiksmažodžiais (ir realizavimas, žr. 4.1.2.), tai pat su subjekto būseną reiškiančiais veiksmažodžiais
(ir realizavimas, žr. 4.1.3), su objektine konstrukcija (ir realizavimas, žr. 4.1.4.). Ketvirtosios dalies
antrajame skyriuje Sintaksinių predikatų struktūriniai tipai su vardažodiniu dėmeniu (žr. 4.2)
aptariamas SP tipas su jungtimi (žr. 4.2.1.), SP struktūrinio tipo jungtis be / būti, jų formos (ir
realizavimas, žr. 4.2.2.) ir su jungtį atstojančiais kitais veiksmažodžiais (ir realizavimas, žr. 4.2.3.).
Aptariami SP tipai su vardažodiniais komponentais – predikatyvais (žr. 4.2.4.), su daiktavardiškaisiais
(žr. 4.2.5.) ir būdvardiškaisiais žodžiais (jų realizavimas, žr. 4.2.6.). Atskirai aptariamas SP dėmenų
derinimas su veiksniu ir derinimo realizavimas anglų ir lietuvių kalbose (žr. 4.3.).
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PUBLIKACIJOS DISERTACIJOS TEMA
Straipsniai recenzuojamuose tarptautiniuose, užsienio ir Lietuvos periodiniuose, tęstiniuose arba
vienkartiniuose leidiniuose, įtrauktuose į Lietuvos mokslo tarybos patvirtintą tarptautinių
duomenų bazių sąrašą
1. Švenčionienė, D. (2006): Morphologically encoded aspect and synthetic and analytic predication.
Kalbotyra. Nr. 56(3). *Linguistics. 142–146. Vilnius: Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. ISSN 1392–1517.
MLA Modern language Association International Bibliography http://www.mla.org
2. Švenčionienė, D. (2008): Anglų kalbos sintaksiniai predikatai ir juos atitinkantys lietuvių kalbos
vientisiniai tariniai. Kalbų studijos. 2008. Nr. 12. *Studies about languages. 11–15. Kaunas:
Technologija. ISSN 1648–2824. MLA Modern language Association International Bibliography
http://www.mla.org
Straipsniai kituose tarptautiniuose, užsienio ir Lietuvos recenzuojamuose periodiniuose mokslo
leidiniuose
1. Švenčionienė, D. (2006): Morpho-syntactic and semantic analysis of futurity. Kalbos vienetų
semantika ir struktūra, 187–192. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. ISBN 978-9955-18-171-2.
Apie autorių
Dana Švenčionienė (g. 1955) 1976–1982 m. studijavo anglų filologiją Vilniaus universitete ir įgijo
anglų kalbos ir literatūros dėstytojo kvalifikacinį laipsnį.
1986–1991 m. dirbo KPI Užsienio kalbų katedroje dėstytoja valandininke. 1992–1998 m. dirbo
Kauno J. Jablonskio vidurinėje mokykloje anglų kalbos vyr. mokytoja. Nuo 1998–2002 m. dirbo
asistente Kauno technologijos universiteto Humanitarinių mokslų fakulteto Užsienio kalbų centre.
1999–2001 m. dalyvavo moksliniame tyrime: Testų sudarymas bei jų efektyvumo tyrimas, vadovas
lektorius V. Raila, UKC. Nuo 2002–2005 m. tyrinėjo Predikatinių sintaksinių konstrukcijų, vertimo iš
anglų į lietuvių kalbą, problemas, konsultantė prof. hab. dr. A. Paulauskienė, KTU. 2005–2008 m. tiria
anglų ir lietuvių kalbų sintaksinius predikatus ir jų morfosintaksinį realizavimą techniniuose tekstuose,
konsultantas prof. hab. dr. V. Labutis, VU.
2008–2009 m. m. D. Švenčionienė priimta į VDU doktorantūrą eksternu ginti parengtą filologijos
krypties darbą Anglų ir lietuvių kalbų sintaksiniai predikatai ir jų morfosintaksinis realizavimas
techniniuose tekstuose, mokslinis vadovas prof. hab. dr. V. Labutis, VU, konsultantė doc. dr. V.
Kalėdaitė.
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