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SECONDARY EDUCATION 4
HISTORY
UNIT 1
WHY DID THE ANCIENT REGIME FAIL?
A) Index
B) Concepts
C) Resources
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History, 40 ESO Unit 1
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A\ INDEX
WHY DID THE ANCIENT REGIME FAIL?
I.
The 18th century: The end of the Ancient Regime
1. What is the Ancient Regime?
a) A feudal society
 Privileged groups: nobility and clergy
 Non privileged groups
b) A rural world
 Primary sector
 Industry and trade
c) Absolutism
 Political doctrine
 Economic system: Mercantilism
d) A new political model: Parlamentarianism
2. The Enlightenment: a new mentality
a) The Enlightenment
b) The Enlightened despots
3. Liberalism and the crisis of the Old Regime
a) Political Liberalism
b) Economic Liberalism
4. Spain: the Bourbon Reformation
a) The Spanish War of Succession (1700-1714)
b) Philip V (1700-1746) and Ferdinand VI (1746-1759)
c) An Enlightened despot: Charles III (1759-1788)
5. Culture in the 18th century
a) Rococo
b) Neoclassicism
II.
The crisis of the Old Regime: the political revolutions (1776-1848)
1. Liberal revolutions
2. The independence of the U.S.A.
a) The origins of the conflict
b) The American War of Independence (1775-1783)
c) Consequences of the independence of the U.S.A.
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3. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire
a) France in crisis: the path to the revolution
b) The National Assembly (1789-1791)
c) The Legislative Assembly (October 1791- September 1792)
d) The Girondin Ministry: the Convention (1792-1793)
e) The Montagnard Convention and the Terror (1793-1794)
f) The Directory and The Consulate (1795-1799)
g) The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)
III.
The Restoration
1. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): the return to absolutism
2. International alliances
IV.
A new revolutionary era (1820-1848)
1. Liberalism and Nationalism
2. Liberal revolutions
a) The 1820 Revolutions
b) The 1830 Revolutions
c) 1848: the Year of Revolutions
d) Consequences of the revolutions
3. The Independence of the American colonies
V.
Art in Revolutionary Europe: Romanticism
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B\ CONCEPTS
I.
The 18th century: the Ancient Regime
1. What is the Ancient Regime?
The Ancient Regime is the name given to the social, economic and political structures
characteristic of the European monarchies during the 18 th century. The Ancient Regime had
three main characteristics:
a) A feudal society based on privilege. Social groups were divided in different
estates determined by birth.
b) An agrarian economy
c) Predominance of Absolute monarchies
These characteristics had barely changed since the Middle Ages, but new social, political
and economic realities were about to end this system
a) A feudal society
The society of the Modern Age was organised following the feudal model. Society was
divided into three estates or orders. Each of them had specific functions and laws and they
were determined by birth. Social mobility was very rare. There were two main groups:
privileged and non privileged.
There were two privileged groups: the nobility and the clergy. They were the bellatores and
the oratores during the Middle Ages, that is to say, they were responsible for society’s
physical and spiritual well-being as they fought and prayed for them. This gave them some
special privileges such as the exemption from most taxes, special laws and courts, the
possession of most of the land and the best jobs.

Privileged groups: the nobility and the clergy
The nobility was supposed to defend society but during the Modern Age many of them
refused or avoided doing so and their social privilege started to be unjustifiable. Within the
nobility there were many different stations. The high nobility (dukes, counts, marquises,
etc.) had enormous political and economic power. Their standard of living was very high and
many of them worked as the king’s counsellors or were their relatives. The middle nobility
(knights) and the low nobility (hidalgos) were especially important in rural areas. They lived
on the income obtained from their lands but their situation was becoming very delicate.
Marriages of convenience became quite common among the rich bourgeoisie and the poor
nobility. It was an exchange of money for position.
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The clergy was in charge of the soul’s salvation by preaching, predication, etc. There were
also many different stations within the clergy. The high clergy (cardinals, bishops and
archbishops) was usually made up of the youngest sons and daughters of the nobility. They
had enormous political and economic power. On the other hand, the middle clergy (abbots,
some priests in wealthy areas, etc.) and the low clergy (most of the priests, nuns and
monks) lived on the incomes obtained from their positions, led a simple life and some of
them lived in conditions of poverty.

Non privileged groups
This was a heterogeneous group formed by all those that didn’t belong to the privileged
groups. They were the laboratores during the Middle Ages and they were in charge of
sustaining society with their work. They paid the taxes, participated in the army and most of
them didn’t have possessions. This group included most of society, so individual differences
were very great.
Most of the population, around 85% of society in countries like France or Spain, were
peasants. Their living conditions were very bad and they used to live at the limit of
subsistence. They suffered severely from increases in taxation.
The bourgeoisie were in charge of most of the trading activities, banking, craftsmanship or
they participated in government as civil servants, lawyers, etc. Some of them became
extremely rich and their standard of living was very high. Their economic situation didn’t
allow them, though, to participate in politics. This social group soon demanded a political
position in accordance with their economic and social importance.
b) A rural world

Primary sector
During the 18th century most of the population worked in agriculture. Production was usually
for self-subsistence and most land was used to cultivate cereals. Some other crops, such as
olives or vines, were also cultivated. Agriculture was highly dependent on climate.
Subsistence crises were very common and periods of hunger alternated with those of plenty.
Changes were difficult due to the property system. Most lands (around 40%) belonged to
the privileged groups. There were special laws which protected these lands, enabling the
nobility or the clergy to sell them or divide them. The rest of the land belonged to the
bourgeoisie or was communal land used by the residents of a parish. Small landowners were
very scarce.
Most peasants made their living working for a lord. They were given a piece of land in return
for a rent in money, products (part of the harvest, cloth or animals) and work on the lord’s
land. On top of those obligations, they also had to pay taxes to the king and the Church,
making the peasant’s situation extremely difficult.
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
Industry and trade
Guilds were the basic production unit from the Middle Ages. They controlled the quantity,
size and quality of production. Prices were established and all had enough work, but
individual innovations weren’t encouraged. During the 18th century population increase
favoured industrial production as domestic markets increased. Some countries like Spain
and France promoted industry by creating the Royal factories. These factories produced
mainly weapons and luxury articles (porcelain, glass, tapestries, etc) and were protected by
the state. Although they developed industry, they were not competitive.
International trade also experienced a huge growth due to the commerce between Europe
and America. The kings also created Royal monopolies by which a trade company would
control trade in a determined area. Both the Crown and the company obtained huge
benefits. Domestic trade, on the other hand, was still on a smaller scale due to the control of
the guilds, internal tolls, etc.
c) Absolutism

Political doctrine
From the 17th century onwards, most of Europe had an Absolutist political system. Under
Absolutism, all the power (political, economical, military, etc). was concentrated in the king.
The king took all decisions, created laws, named judges and was head of the Army. Under
Absolutism, Monarchy and State can not be divided.
Absolutism appeared in France during the 17th century, under the reign of Louis XIV.
Absolutism was supported by different theories and authors, such as Jacques Bossuet
(France, 1627-1704). This French bishop created a theory known as The Divine Right of
Kings. The king’s power was provided by God and kings were only responsible in the eyes
of God.
Absolutism allowed kings not to depend politically on the nobility. The nobility accepted this
new situation as their social and economic influence was not only maintained but also
expanded. To control their countries and colonies, absolute monarchies also created a
strong body of civil servants, permanent diplomats and a powerful army. To pay for all
these expenses, taxes were increased on the non privileged groups.

Mercantilism
Economically, absolutism supported mercantilism. This economic system appeared in the
16th century, but it would become especially important from the second half of the 17 th
century, promoted by Jean Colbert, Louis XIV’s minister.
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Mercantilism was based on the idea that the economic prosperity of a country depends on
the amount of precious metal (gold and silver) each country owns. To obtain as much
precious metal as they could they had to trade. Trade should have a positive balance, that
is to say it was necessary to have more exports than imports. The state had to intervene in
the economy and protect their own economy against others, for example by using tariffs
that increased the cost of foreign products. States needed to produce most of the products
they consumed to avoid imports and that developed colonial expansion.
State intervention in the economy and the mercantile system had the following
consequences:






Precious metal had to be acquired and held.
Exports were promoted and national industries developed.
Tariffs were created to stop imports.
Trading companies were created to control international trade.
The need for abundant labour was essential to ensure low salaries.
Prices should be low to increase consumption.
d) A new political doctrine: English Parlamentarianism
Absolutism wasn’t successful in all of Europe and a new political model (Parlamentarianism)
started to develop in England and the United Provinces during the 17th century. In both
cases economic prosperity allowed an important middle class (bourgeoisie) to grow. This
new group wanted political representation in accordance with their economic position. They
managed to stop the growing power of the king and controlled their parliament.
During the 17th century, some English kings tried to impose absolutism and there were
severe conflicts between the king and the bourgeoisie, which led to several revolutions. The
Glorious Revolution (1688) forced the Stuarts to abdicate and William II of Orange was
named the new English king. He had to accept a limitation on his powers and he had to sign
a Bill of Rights to acknowledge Parliamentary power.
Like Absolutism, Parlamentarianism also had theoretical support. The most important author
was John Locke (1632-1704). He developed the Social Contract theory. Locke believed in
the state of nature and he thought the government had to ensure and protect the natural
rights (for example law and liberty). If the government didn’t respect or ensure these rights
the governed would have the right of rebellion. Three main ideas were expounded by
Locke: liberty (ensured by some basic rights), equality before the law (against the privileges
of feudal society) and property as a way of social differentiation. Locke believed that only
the owners contribute to the State and only they should have the right to take decisions
(limited suffrage). This theory would be essential in the following centuries and it would be
used to justify many liberal revolutions during the 18th and 19th century.
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2. . The Enlightenment: a new mentality
a) The Enlightenment
From around 1700 onwards, a number of brilliant writers in England, Germany and France
published books in which they called for changes in the way countries were ruled. Because
they believed that the use of reason would bring the light of knowledge to the world, these
ideas have become known as the Enlightenment. These ideas extended all over Europe
and America. These authors were inspired by authors like Locke, Descartes or Newton.
The most important ideas of the Enlightenment were:
1. Rationalism: reason is the origin of knowledge. Established ideas can be questioned.
2. Nature is the source of knowledge. By experience and observing natural facts we can
obtain knowledge.
3. They believed the pursuit of happiness is the main objective in life.
4. Science and progress would lead us to a path of constant progress and perfection.
The Enlightenment opposed feudal society. They believed this system was only based on
tradition, not on reason: They thought that a social system based on social and legal
equality would bring progress for all. Capacity and not birth should determine inequalities.
Privileges for some social groups (nobility and clergy) and some institutions (such as the
guilds) were also a burden for economic development. Because of all of this, the
Enlightenment was seen as a threat by many social groups, as it was seen as a danger to
their privileges.
Enlightened ideas were spread in Europe mainly thanks to the creation of the
Encyclopaedia (directed by Diderot and d’Alambert). They tried to include all the
knowledge of their time under the “light” of reason. Many traditions and beliefs were severely
questioned.
b) The Enlightened despots
In politics, the ideas of the Enlightenment influenced both the enlightened despots
(absolutism) and the liberal revolutions. The enlightened despots believed changes could be
made within existing government and the revolutionaries believed a radical change was
necessary.
During the 18th century some absolute kings made reforms within their countries to improve
the lives of their subjects. These improvements would allow them to strengthen their power
and authority, as their subjects would be pleased with their reforms but they could also justify
taking some privileges away from the privileged groups (nobility, clergy and guilds mainly).
Their ideas can be synthesised in the following sentence: Everything for the people, nothing
by the people.
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Some of the most important enlightened despots were Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of
Austria, Catherine II of Russia and Charles III of Spain. The main reforms they made were:




They promoted economic growth by creating national factories and
fomenting trade (better infrastructures, eliminating internal taxes, etc.)
Favouring the arts, science and education. A well educated population
would develop the country.
They accepted some religious tolerance, freedom of speech and the press,
etc.
They centralised their administration, created a professional army and
limited the power of the Church and nobility.
Economically, they supported the Physiocrats’ theories exposed by Quesnay. The
Physiocrats believed wealth only came from agriculture because industry and trade only
transformed goods and exchanged them. Some land property changes were needed to use
land to its full potential.
These reforms were insufficient to provide society with the changes that were needed. Even
though they were insufficient, they faced opposition from the privileged groups and the kings
stopped many of them.
3. . Liberalism and the crisis of the Ancient Regime
a) Political liberalism
The Bourgeoisie soon realised that Enlightened despots were not going to make profound
changes. If they wanted things to change they had to do it themselves. The Liberal
revolutions are the process by which the bourgeoisie gained power during the 18th and 19th
century in most of Europe and America.
Political Liberalism is a group of ideas that supported Liberal revolutions. English
Parlamentarianism provided the basis for these ideas (the division of power and national
sovereignty) and they were built on and spread by Enlightened authors.
The greatest writers of the Enlightenment were found in France. Montesquieu believed the
best way to control absolute power was to divide it. Power should be divided (executive,
legislative and judicial) and he believed England was the political model to follow. Voltaire
(1694-1778) attacked the government and called for freedom of speech and more power for
the people. He often spoke out against the absolute power of the king and the influence of
the Catholic Church in France. Jean- Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) wrote The Social
Contract in which he claimed that the people, and not the king, were the real source of
power (national sovereignty).
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b) Economic liberalism
Together with political change, economic change was also needed. Adam Smith (17231790), a Scottish economist, wrote The Wealth of Nations. He rejected the Physiocratic
ideas based on land as the basis of the economy. He believed labour had a greater effect on
production. He thought governments shouldn’t intervene in the economy because natural
laws would regulate the market. He believed the Law of Supply and Demand would
regulate prices in the market. For that, guilds and tariffs should first be suppressed.
4. Spain: the Bourbon reformation
a) The Spanish War of Succession (1700-1714)
When Charles II died without an heir he chose Philip of Anjou, Louis XIV’s grandson, as his
successor. This election triggered a conflict with the main European nations. Many European
States saw this succession as a real threat to the rest of Europe as two of the most important
European dynasties could join under the figure of Philip of Anjou. This conflict is known as
the War of Succession to the Spanish throne.
Germany, England and Holland signed a treaty of Alliance (The Great Alliance) against
France and Spain. Portugal and Savoy also supported the Great Alliance. They supported
Charles, Archduke of Austria and son of the German Emperor as another claimant to the
throne.
This international conflict also lead to an internal conflict. Some Spanish realms (Catalonia,
Aragon and Valencia) were in favour of Charles because he represented an authoritarian
model instead of an absolute one. The rest of Spain accepted Philip of Anjou.
The war ended with two peace treaties: the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and the Treaty of
Rastadt (1714). The most important consequences of these treaties were:

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
Philip of Anjou (Philip V) was acknowledged as king of Spain but he had to refuse
the French throne. He was the first king of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain.
Spain kept its overseas empire, but most of its European possessions were
lost. The Netherlands, Naples, Milan and Sardinia came under the control of
Austria. Sicily and parts of the Milanese were given to Savoy.
England obtained Gibraltar and Menorca. They also gained the right to trade
once a year with America and absolute control of the slave trade.
After the Spanish War of Succession a new era started in Europe. France stopped being the
hegemonic power and there was a period of political equilibrium among the European
nations.
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b) Philip V (1700-1746) and Ferdinand VI (1746-1759)
Despite the loss of all her European possessions, Spain was still a world power as it held
extensive dominions in the New World. Philip’s objective was to strengthen monarchic power
following his grandfather’s example. The War of Succession offered him the chance to make
some reforms. These reforms were known as Decretos de Nueva Planta. The most
important changes they made were:

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
The Aragonese Crown lost all its privileges and its autonomous institutions.
Navarre and the Basque Country, which supported Philip, kept them.
Government was centralised and Castilian laws and language imposed.
The administration was changed. Councils were replaced by Departments or
Ministries, directly controlled by the king. The figure of the intendant was created.
They were civil servants responsible for supervising and safeguarding the king’s
interests. Its most important activity was to collect taxes in every kingdom.
Philip V and his successors aimed to make some social reforms to improve the social
conditions of his Spanish subjects. The most important objective was to develop the
economy. They tried to develop industry and they created Royal Factories which produced
luxury products (glassware, tapestries and ceramics). They also tried to develop agriculture
by cultivating more lands, new crops (for example corn), introducing irrigation systems, etc.
The Mesta (sheep owner’s guild) was deprived of all its privileges. The main obstacle to
solving the agricultural crisis was the latifundia (enormous agricultural properties) that were
in the hands of the privileged groups.
The Bourbon kings changed their alliances during the 18th century. France became a new
ally as they had family bonds and the rivalry with England deepened. In 1731, Spain and
France signed the Family Compacts (Pactos de Familia). Spain would become a French
ally and they would participate together in any European conflict. This collaboration helped
Spain to win back Naples and Sicily.
Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) was a son from Philip’s first marriage. He was determined to
develop the Spanish economy and to concentrate on the Spanish colonies. To do so he
maintained a neutral foreign policy but he created a powerful fleet to protect Spanish
interests in America.
c) An Enlightened despot: Charles III (1759-1788)
Charles III was king of Naples when he inherited the Spanish throne. He was an
enlightened despot who promoted Spanish growth, especially in economy and culture: he
populated new lands to cultivate (the Alpujarras) and promoted the Royal factories. He also
developed culture and science by creating Academies and cultural groups to apply science
in daily life (Sociedades de Amigos del País). Some of the king’s reforms created great
discontent among the nobility and the clergy, who instigated riots (such as the Esquilache
riot).
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Charles III tried to consolidate royal authority by limiting the nobility and the clergy’s power.
In 1767 Charles III decided to expel the Jesuit order from the Spanish realms (Spain and
America). The Jesuits were seen as a threat to the Crown as they accepted the Pope’s
authority above the king’s. They also had great wealth and a huge influence on education
which limited the Crown’s influence.
Charles III continued the protection of Spanish trade with the American colonies. He also
signed a new Family Compact (1761) which forced Spain to participate in the Seven Years
War (1756-1763). Spain and France confronted England and Portugal. The Treaty of Paris
(1763) put an end to the war. Spain lost Florida and Sacramento while France gave us part
of Louisiana.
In 1779 Spain helped France to defeat Great Britain in the American War of
Independence. The treaty of Versailles (1783) put an end to the war and acknowledged
the North American colonies’ independence. Spain won back Florida and Menorca, but it
opened the way to the independence of the Spanish colonies.
Charles III died in 1788, a year before the French Revolution. His son, Charles IV, inherited
the throne and had to face the political problems of the 18 th century.
5. Culture in the 18th century
a) Rococo
Rococo developed in the first half of the 18th century. It was a courtesan art that
displayed opulent decoration. Walls and ceilings were richly decorated and furniture
reinforced this effect. Rococo was especially important in painting, with painters like Tiepolo,
Watteau or Fragonard in France and Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds in Great
Britain. Their paintings were full of detail and showed court scenes.
b) Neoclassicism
This new style developed in the second half of the 18th century and was especially
important in France. It recovered classical art and created sober and elegant buildings. It
represented the spirit of Enlightenment and its rationalism. Balance, symmetry and the use
of straight lines would provide strong and solid creations.
In Architecture they used classical elements (columns, pillars, etc.) with very restrained
decoration. In Madrid the Prado Museum, the National Library and Puerta de Alcalá are
some examples of neoclassical art. Painting and sculpture represented the ideal of beauty.
Antonio Canova in sculpture and Jean Louis David and Francisco de Goya in painting
are three of the most important examples.
Enlightened despots promoted this kind of art to enhance their power. Madrid, Vienna and
Paris were embellished and became important cultural centres.
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II.
The crisis of the Old Regime. The political revolutions (1776-1848)
1. Liberal revolutions
At the end of the 18th century the Old Regime Society (Ancient Regime) was based on
absolute monarchies, social estates were divided by birth and the economy was controlled
by the State. This social model had some contradictions that we have already explained. The
different attempts to reform this system by progressive changes failed and revolutionary
movements (brusque changes) arose.
From 1776 to 1848 Western society experienced different revolutions. All these revolutions
expanded Liberal ideas promoted by the bourgeoisie. The main ideas of Liberalism were:




They promoted the freedom of thought, religious liberty, etc.
They defended national sovereignty, the division of power (executive, legislative and
judicial) and created Constitutions that included Human Rights declarations.
Socially the estates divided by birth were substituted by a class society divided by
wealth.
Economically they supported a Liberal economy and promoted the laissez faire model
(let them do) against State intervention.
2. The independence of the U.S.A.
a) The origins of the conflict
From the early 17th century British colonies were settled in North America. By 1750 around
two million people lived in the British colonies in North America. When George III
became king of England in 1760, the British colonies were divided into thirteen states. These
colonies had enjoyed great independence even though they depended on the British
parliament.
The Seven Years War (1756-1763) meant the transformation of Great Britain into a great
colonial empire as they obtained the French colonies in North America. The Crown’s
expenses multiplied as they had to ensure their position in the colonies. The king and his
government believed that the Americans should pay more taxes to cover the cost of sending
British soldiers, ships and sailors to protect them.
The British Parliament passed several laws to tax different products (stamps on official
documents, glass, paints, lead, paper and tea). The Americans reacted against them. They
didn’t elect the Members of Parliament so they thought the Parliament had no right to tax
them (No taxation without representation). To avoid discontent King George III abolished all
taxes except the one on tea. In November 1773, the Boston Tea Party took place: tea from
the British ships was dumped into Boston harbour. In response, the British government
closed the port of Boston and shut down the local assembly elected by the people. They
sent an army to the colonies to impose these orders.
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b) The American War of Independence (1775-1783)
In 1774, the Thirteen Colonies sent delegates to the First Continental Congress, meeting at
Philadelphia. They established a boycott on British products and created an American militia.
On 4 July 1776, the Continental Congress at Philadelphia passed the Declaration of
Independence. This document had been drafted by Thomas Jefferson and it declared the
right of the people of the U.S.A. to break free from Great Britain. George III had interfered
with their rights and they had the duty and the right to rebel. This declaration included the
first Declaration of the Rights of Men.
To lead their forces, the Continental Congress had chosen George Washington as their
commander in chief. France helped the colonists to undermine British interests in America as
revenge for the Seven Years War. Spain helped France due to the second Family Compact.
In 1781 the British troops were defeated at Yorktown (Virginia) and they surrendered. Under
the Treaty of Versailles (1783), Great Britain agreed to recognise the independence of the
North American colonies.
c) Consequences of the independence of the USA
To organise their political system, the USA created a Constitution in 1787. They set up a
federal system of government. Each state had its own government for most matters. The
president controlled the executive power and together with the congress of the U.S.A. took
common decisions on defence and foreign affairs. George Washington was elected as the
first president of the U.S.A. in the 1789.
The independence of the USA had a huge influence on future revolutions. It was a model for
the French Revolution and for the independence of the rest of the American colonies. The
1787 Constitution was a model as it applied basic liberal principles, such as the division of
powers and national sovereignty.
3. The French Revolution (1789-1804) and the Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)
a) France in crisis
At the end of the 18th century, France was ruled by Louis XVI (1774-1793). The king had
absolute power and society was divided into privileged and non-privileged groups.
The French population had increased at a slow rate, but still fast enough to outstrip growth in
the production of food. This created sustained inflation of food prices which were especially
painful for the poor, the vast majority of the French, who were peasants with little or no land.
The crown, the nobility and the clergy had been compensating for inflation by holding down
wages and putting up rents and dues, making situation even worse. This entire situation
intensified during the 1780s with a series of bad harvests, cattle disease and recession.
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In 1788, Louis XVI and his government faced serious difficulties. The country was nearly
bankrupt. The cost of fighting in the American War of Independence had been very high.
More money could only be obtained by increasing taxes. Taxes were paid by the Third
Estate (merchants, lawyers, shopkeepers and peasants). The clergy (First Estate) and the
nobility (Second Estate) were excused from paying many of the existing taxes. The nobility
and the clergy had to contribute to the French economy to resolve the crisis.
The king called a meeting of the Estates General in 1789 (the last time they met had been
1614). Before the Estates General was held, each group had to elaborate some cahiers to
list the grievances and desires of the people. These cahiers showed the general discontent
of the Third Estate in regards with the Ancient Regime. The Third Estate was determined to
obtain more power and to limit the powers of the privileged groups.
b) The National Assembly (1789-1791)
The voting system was one of the main complaints of the Third Estate. Traditionally, each
Estate had one vote and that way the First and Second Estates could always outvote the
Third Estate. The Third Estate wanted each deputy to have a vote. In this way, the Third
Estate could outvote the other two as they had a bigger number of representatives.
Louis XVI supported the privileged groups and ordered the Third Estate to leave the meeting
place. They gathered together on the tennis court at Versailles (20 th June) and swore the
Tennis Court Oath. They refused to break up until France had a new form of government.
As a result, the king forced the other two estates to join them to form the National Assembly.
The king feared that this Assembly could reduce his power. He tried to use troops to close
the assembly. This led mobs in Paris to storm the Bastile prison (14th July 1789), a symbol
of absolute power and unjust rule. This saved the National Assembly from being broken up.
In the countryside there was a rumour that the nobles were going to take revenge by burning
crops and starving the peasants into submission. This led peasants all over France to rise up
against their lords and burn many chateaux or castles. All these events, known as The Great
Fear, urged the Assembly to abolish the feudal system.
The main contributions of the National Assembly were:



The feudal system was abolished: peasants had no longer to work for the lord and
accept his abuses. The tithe was also abolished.
The 1791 Constitution was approved. Louis XVI continued to be the king but not as
an absolute monarch. Political powers were divided. They established a parliamentary
monarchy. Representatives were elected by limited suffrage.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen which prefaced the 1781
Constitution guaranteed equal rights to all French citizens.
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c) The Legislative Assembly (October 1791- September 1792)
Once the Constitution was approved, the Assembly started to legislate. Many of these
reforms weren’t accepted by some French groups and by some European countries. The
main enemies of the Constitutional monarchy were:




The nobility: many nobles wanted to recover their privileges and they conspired to
suppress this new government.
The clergy: the Assembly approved on July 1790 the Civil Constitution of the
Clergy. With this law, the power of the pope was ended and priests would have to
swear an oath accepting the French Revolution. All church lands were taken over by
the government and convents and monasteries were closed down. Pope Pious VI
condemned this new law. Many French opposed this law as they were devout
Catholics.
The royal family: Louis XVI was worried about the events taking place. On June
1791 Louis XVI and his family tried to escape from France. They had reached the
town of Varennes when they were forced to return to Paris.
The popular groups (sans-culottes): the new political system defended the
interests of the bourgeoisie. Popular groups wanted deeper changes.
Some European countries saw all these events as a threat to their own countries. They
were scared the revolution could spread to their own countries. The Civil Constitution of the
Clergy and the Pope’s opposition to it gave an excuse to some European countries to attack
France. On April 1792, France declared war on Austria, beginning a period of war in
Europe which was to last on and off for over twenty years. French armies hoped to spread
the revolution to other countries in Europe.
Many people suspected that Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette (of Austrian origin)
wanted France to be defeated so that the Austrian emperor would put an end to the
revolution. During July 1792, there were a number of demonstrations against the king in
Paris. Parisian mobs attacked the palace where the king was staying. Louis XVI took refuge
in the assembly but the attackers forced the deputies to remove Louis XVI from power.
France became a Republic.
d) The Girondin Ministry: the Convention (1792-1793)
The Convention was formed by two important groups: the Girondins (moderates) and the
Jacobins or Montagnard (more radical).The Jacobins managed to take control and they
made a new constitution, the 1793 Constitution. They extended the right to vote and created
some social laws. They even created a new calendar. Robespierre, the Jacobin leader,
became very influential. He played a leading role in calling for the king to be punished. In
December 1792, Louis XVI was put on trial for plotting against the revolution. He was
executed in 1793.
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The execution of the king caused horror throughout Europe. Other countries became more
hostile to France and in February 1793, England, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands joined in
the war against her (the First Coalition).
During 1793 and 1794, the peasants in the Vendeé region of the west of France opposed
the policy of the Republic. They supported the king, the nobility and the clergy. They were
finally defeated after two years.
All these events together radicalised the revolution. The army was expanded by massive
conscription. The enemies of the revolution should be prosecuted and judged. Robespierre
and his group ruled France with the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary
Tribunal.
e) The Montagnard Convention and the Terror (1793-1794)
The sans-culottes, the mob of small tradesmen, artisans and their employees feared the
end of the revolution and the return to the Ancient Regime. To stop this, together with the
Montagnards mounted a coup d’etat to take power from the Girondins.
A new democratic constitution was created, but the internal and external situation made it
impossible to apply. They decreed a provisional government, a regime which was strong,
centralised and armed with dictatorial powers. Using the Committee of Public Safety and
the Revolutionary Tribunal, they carried out a Reign of Terror against all enemies of the
revolution. Over 3000 people were executed.
In June and July 1794 Robespierre stepped up the terror and sent increasing numbers of
prisoners to the guillotine. French victory in battles diluted the need for such measures and
Robespierre’s enemies decided to arrest him (the 9th Thermidor). He was condemned and
executed at the guillotine.
f) The Directory (1795-1799) and the Consulate (1799-1804)
A new constitution, the 1795 Constitution, was approved. It was a moderate constitution that
established a restricted vote. Executive power was to be controlled by a Directory of five
members. Legislative power was controlled by two different councils with a very limited
electorate.
The French managed to defeat the Spanish and the Austrians and both had to sign a peace
treaty (1795). Napoleon Bonaparte became the most famous general in France. He won
splendid victories in Italy and he defeated the British in Egypt. He returned to France without
permission in 1799 and seized power in Paris. He became the real ruler of France with the
title of First Consul.
A group of three men, including Napoleon, became the new rulers of France. Napoleon was
the First consul for three years. He acquired more power slowly and he named himself
permanent consul in 1802. In 1804, Napoleon had himself declared Emperor of the French.
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g) The Napoleonic Empire (1804- 1815)
Napoleon tried to create a modern State to consolidate France’s expansion. He created a
Civil Code, centralised education, modernised Paris, etc. Napoleon’s foreign policy was his
most important contribution.
Napoleon’s foreign policy can be divided in two phases:
 1805-1807: England and France had been at war since 1803. Napoleon prepared for
an invasion of England, but he was defeated at Trafalgar (1805). The British navy, under
Lord Nelson’s leadership, defeated the French fleet. Napoleon then concentrated on the
continent and attacked Prussia and Austria. Napoleon won a stunning victory over the
Russians and Austrians at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805). The Prussians were defeated at
the battle of Jena.
By 1807 Napoleon was at the height of his power. He had forced peace on the most
powerful countries on the continent on his own terms. He made his relatives rulers of some
of these countries (Holland, Italy, Germany, etc.) Only Great Britain continued to defy him.
He attempted to close the continent to British trade. This ban was known as the
Continental System, but Portugal helped the British to obtain most of the products they
needed.
 1808-1815: To stop Portugal helping Great Britain, Napoleon made an agreement
with Godoy, Charles IV of Spain´s favourite. Godoy allowed Napoleon to cross Spain to
conquer Portugal but he decided to conquer Spain on his way. The Spanish population
revolted and the Spanish Peninsular War started (1808-1814). Napoleon was defeated at
the battle of Bailén (1808) but he soon controlled most of Spanish territory.
By 1810, Napoleon’s power in Europe appeared to be very strong. Three countries refused
to accept this power: Spain, Great Britain and Russia.
Most Spanish people refused to accept Napoleon’s brother Joseph as their king. Instead,
they carried out a kind of guerrilla war against the French. In June 1812 Napoleon decided
to invade Russia. The Russians retreated and burned food supplies as the French
invaders went deeper into the country. As the Russian winter set in, starvation, sickness
and the terrible cold destroyed much of Napoleon’s army. Great Britain helped the Spanish
to defeat the French. The Duke of Wellington, together with the Spanish army, defeated
the French.
In 1813, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in Germany. France was invaded
and Napoleon was deposed as emperor and exiled to Elba (in the Mediterranean Sea). In
March 1815, Napoleon escaped and returned to France where he gathered an army. This
period is known as the Hundred Days’ Government. After this period, he was defeated at
the Battle of Waterloo (1815) by a combined army of Britain, Austria and Prussia led by
the Duke of Wellington. He was exiled to the island of St. Helena (off the coast of Africa),
where he remained until his death in 1821.
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III.
The Restoration
1. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): the return to Absolutism
Napoleon’s control over Europe for fifteen years had changed the boundaries of European
countries and the balance of power was non-existent. When Napoleon was defeated the
European leaders met in Vienna in 1814 to reorganise Europe. The Austrian Chancellor,
Prince von Metternich (1773-1859) presided over the Congress. He made all the agreements
following three main principles:
1. Legitimism: monarchies based on the Divine Right of the Kings and tradition.
Absolutism was newly imposed over most of Europe.
2. Intervention when it is needed to maintain the established order.
3. Balance of power to avoid the hegemony of one country over others.
All the European states were represented except the Ottoman Empire. The leading
countries were Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria. Later on France was
accepted in the meeting. These big five powers made the most important decisions:
1. Reorganising the map of European: Napoleon’s empire had to be divided and these
territories had to be handed back to the previous rulers. The main changes were:
 Russia gained part of Poland and took Finland from Sweden
 Prussia was given the Rhineland and part of Poland
 Austria took over the Italian states of Lombardy, Venetia and part of Poland. The
small Italian states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany were ruled by Austrian
princes.
 Sweden took Norway from Denmark; Denmark occupied the north of Germany.
 The HRE disappeared and a confederation of 39 German states was set up under
the presidency of Austria.
 The lands of Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg were united as the Kingdom of the
Netherlands.
 Britain gained maritime hegemony with several small territories, including the
Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Malta, the Ionian Islands, etc. They also obtained
several territories abroad taken from France.
2. Re-establishing the political system from before the French Revolution: Spain
and Naples were restored to the Bourbon royal family, the Pope recovered the Papal
States, Louis XVIII was the new French king, etc.
Several meetings followed the Congress of Vienna to make sure that the new order worked.
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2. International alliances
To ensure this new order, two alliances were established:


IV.
The Quadruple Alliance: the four powers which had joined to defeat Napoleon
(Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria) agreed to guarantee the Vienna agreement and
to meet regularly to discuss and maintain the peace of Europe. This agreement
guaranteed the “Congress System”.
The Holy Alliance: proposed by Tsar Alexander I wanted to safeguard Absolutism
and the Christian religion. Prussia, Austria and later France and Spain participated.
A new revolutionary era (1820-1848)
1. Liberalism and nationalism
The Congress of Vienna and the following meetings succeeded for a time. There was no
major European war between 1815 and the 1850’s, the longest period of peace in Europe for
centuries. France wasn’t heavily punished for the Napoleonic wars and did not seek revenge
on those who defeated them. The Congress System seemed, at first, to work quite well.
The Congress System ignored two new important movements: Nationalism and
Liberalism. Some nations wished to be independent and their desires were pushed aside.
The problem wasn’t solved and it was just postponed in countries like Belgium, Italy and
Germany. Some others wanted to return to the ideas of the French Revolution and limit the
power of the monarchies. The Congress of Vienna considered Liberalism as a dangerous
movement against the power of kings. The main powers tried to suppress both and the
system started to break down in the 1820s with the Liberal revolutions.
2. The Liberal Revolutions
a) 1820 Revolutions
In 1820, revolt suddenly swept across southern Europe (Spain, Portugal, Naples and
Greece) and Russia. At this stage, only a small number of educated people, some nobles
and some army officers were involved in these revolutions.
Spain was first. In 1812 the Liberals created a Constitution to rule the country. After the war,
Ferdinand VII didn’t accept the constitution and established an Absolutist system. Colonel
Riego, the leader of some Liberal army officers, seized power and made the king promise to
follow the constitution of 1812. The revolt was put down in 1823, following the principle of
intervention of the Congress System, France sent an army known as the Hundred Thousand
Sons of Saint Louis. Ferdinand VII recovered his absolute power.
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During 1821 the Greeks revolted against the Turks. Russia helped the Greek rebels against
the principles of the Congress of Vienna because they were interested in weakening the
interests of their traditional enemy, Turkey. After a long war, in 1829 Turkey accepted Greek
independence.
b) The 1830 Revolutions
A new wave of revolts took place in 1830. The first revolution took place in Paris in 1830.
Louis XVIII ruled as a constitutional monarch and tried to heal the divisions in postNapoleonic France. When Charles X succeeded Louis in 1824 he pursued compensation
policies for the nobles who had lost their properties during the Revolution. He also gave the
Church the power it held before the revolution (for example they controlled education). Press
censorship was tightened. Finally he attempted to abolish the Chamber of Deputies
(Parliament). Revolution started in Paris. Charles X abandoned the country and his
successor, Louis Philippe of Orleans was chosen by the citizens. The French example
encouraged many of the other revolutions in 1830.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands was artificially created in 1815. The southern
Netherlands (Belgium) had remained under the Habsburgs while the northern Netherlands
(or United Provinces) had won independence from Spain in 1648. The Belgians were
Catholic and spoke French or Flemish. They didn’t want to be ruled by the House of Orange.
Belgium rose in revolt against the Netherlands and succeeded in becoming an independent
country with their own king in 1831.
Although the early 1830s saw several failed attempts at revolution and most revolts were put
down, there were a few successes, as in France, Belgium and Greece. The new movements
of the 19th century were beginning to attract more supporters.
c) 1848, the year of revolutions
1848 is known as the year of revolutions. Revolutions became more frequent and intense
because Liberal and Nationalist ideas coincided with an economic crisis. The working
classes supported these new revolutions in demand for a solution to the situation of hunger
and unemployment most of the population was living in.
Revolutionary movements started once again in France. Louis Philippe’s government
couldn’t manage a series of crises, including hunger, unemployment, living conditions, etc.
Finally the Second Republic was instituted. The revolution extended to Vienna, Berlin, Milan,
Budapest and Prague.
After a promising start, most of the revolutions of 1848 failed. The working class
participated actively in these revolutions and many of them wanted to go much further,
changing the whole system. Many Liberals were scared they might lose their power and
many of them helped to restore the old order again.
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c) Consequences of the revolutions
The revolutions had great importance. The main consequences were:



The Restoration system disappeared for good.
The working class saw that the bourgeoisie didn’t include them in their revolutionary
ideas. They needed to organise in an independent way.
The unifications of Italy and Germany were initiated.
3. The Independence of the American Colonies
During the 18th century Spanish reforms promoted strong economic and administrative
control. Most important positions were held by Spaniards and the criollos (American
bourgeoisie) wanted to obtain self-government. The independence of the U.S.A. set the
precedent for this movement.
During the Spanish War of Independence, the colonies also established their own Juntas
controlled by the criollos. When Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne, he re-established
his power.
In 1816 Argentina proclaimed its independence. The rest of the continent followed its
example. “(…) In the South, General San Martín liberated Chile. In the North, Simón Bolivar
and Sucre liberated Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador. Perú became independent after the
battle of Ayacucho (1824) and Agustín Iturbe liberated Mexico in 1821. That same year the
other Central American countries (…) became independent (…) The liberated territories
were turned into Republics (…)”1
V.
Art in Revolutionary Europe: Romanticism
Romanticism appeared in the late 18th century and continued till the second half of the 19th
century. The Romantics believed that the emotions and not reason should dictate what was
painted or written. Romanticism drew on the mystery of medieval times, myths and legends,
Gothic architecture, folk music and folk tales. Many of the early Nationalists were romantics
and looked to the past for evidence of heroes and the separate culture of their nations.
In architecture, several styles were mixed and medieval and oriental buildings were used
for inspiration. The British Houses of Parliament and the Royal Pavilion are good examples
of this style. In painting, heroic, wild landscapes and very energetic scenes appeared.
Delacroix in France (Liberty guiding the people) and Turner in England (Rain, Steam and
Speed) are some examples of this style.
1
J.M. Roldan: A short history of Spain, Edi-6, 1987, page 96.
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C\ RESOURCES

Michael Beaud: Historia del capitalismo (De 1500 a nuestros días), Ariel, 1986.

Jean Pierre Bois: La Revolución Francesa, Historia 16, 1999.

Gerard Brockie and Raymond Walsh: Focus on the past 2. Change and Revolution
(1450-1850), Gill & Macmillan, 1990.

Trevor Cairns: Power for the People, Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Grez Hetherton: Revolutionary France. Liberty, tyranny and terror, Cambridge
University Press, 1992.

J.H. Elliott: La España Imperial (1469-1716), Circulo de Lectores, 1996.

Fernando García de Cortazar: Breve historia de España (I), Editorial Altaza, 1996.

Grez Hetherton: Revolutionary France. Liberty, tyranny and terror, Cambridge
University Press, 1992.

J.A.P. Jones: The Early Modern World (1450-1700), Macmillan Education, 1980.

Robert Kirkpatrick: The nineteenth century, Folens, 1980.

Albert Lovett: Europe (1453-1610), The Educational Company, 1980.

Carlos Martínez Shaw: El Siglo de las Luces. Las bases intelectuales del reformismo,
Historia 16, 1992.

María Pilar Pérez Cantó: De colonias a republica. Los orígenes de los Estados
Unidos de América, Editorial Síntesis, 1995.
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