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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ
КАЗАХСТАН
СЕМИПАЛАТИНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ИМЕНИ ШАКАРИМА
КАФЕДРА ТЕОРИИ И ПРАКТИКИ ПЕРЕВОДА
Тезисы лекций
по дисциплине «Теория и практика межкультурной коммуникации»
для студентов 4 курса специальности
050207 – «Переводческое дело».
Lecture 1. Concept of Communication.
Communication: communication models, functions, types.
An Introduction to Intercultural Communication - a basic summary of the purpose of intercultural
communication.
Intercultural communication is of importance to international businesses as it examines how people from
different cultures, beliefs and religions come together to work and communicate with each other.
Demands for intercultural communication skills are increasing as more and more businesses go global or
international. They realize that there are barriers and limitations when entering a foreign territory. Without the
help of intercultural communication they can unknowingly cause confusion and misunderstandings. For these
intercultural businesses to breach the cultural barriers encountered when stepping into foreign grounds it is vital
for them to fully understand the cultural differences that exist so as to prevent damaging business relations due
to intercultural communication gaps.
There are many theories that set principles to help interpret the basis of intercultural communication. These
theories help to iron out possible ripples of misunderstanding by giving a basic guideline on how to address
situations. These guidelines help prevent clashes between different cultures groups caused by misperceptions.
The basic skills of intercultural communication are fundamentally general communication skills that can be
used universally by all cultures and races. These skills are simply tweaked in a direction that takes the cultural
limitation into consideration. An example of such communication skills in the intercultural environment is to
listen without judging, repeat what you understand, confirm meanings, give suggestions and acknowledge a
mutual understanding.
In a nutshell the main purpose of following such theories is to earn respect from others. Respect in all cultures
in the world is a common language and by earning it through respecting other peoples culture and religion; the
favor is returned.
Lecture 2. Concept of Communication.
Verbal and non-verbal communication. Main units of verbal communication: texts,
communicative acts
Cross Cultural Communication Consultants - A look at the role, skills and qualifications of cross cultural
communication consultants.
Cross cultural communication consultants have come a long way in the short period of time such specialists
have been in demand. No longer are they expatriates with a few years overseas experience and the capability to
impart their knowledge onto others. Cross cultural consultants now bring expertise that is founded upon a
number of key factors.
Cross cultural consultants generally have a broad knowledge and experience of two or more different cultures.
This knowledge is then employed to assist companies and individuals overcome challenges brought about
through cross cultural differences in business. Areas in which assistance is needed may range from relocation
briefings to company mergers or management techniques. The ability to diagnose and treat cross cultural
problems is developed through their experience in a number of different fields.
Academic Knowledge Cross cultural consultants will generally have an academic background either in
specific courses such as 'Cross Cultural Communication and Trade' or 'Cross Cultural Psychology' or in related
courses such as 'International Relations' or 'Business Studies'. Their studies will equip them with the academic
skills and knowledge of the field that will later be applied in the business context.
Business Know-how It is critical for cross cultural consultants to have considerable business experience. If
this is lacking then academic knowledge is not usually sufficient to understand the mechanics of business
operations. In order to understand how things work and the different challenges facing managers and staff it is
critical to have experienced it first hand.
Training Experience
Through courses and practical experience a cross cultural consultant will have
knowledge of training techniques. This will include communication skills, presentation methods, the use of
activities and utilization of different technology and media.
Living Abroad
Experience of living abroad, mixing with different cultures, speaking different languages
and working in foreign offices is vital for any cross cultural consultant. Without having been exposed to a
different culture how can one advise on working effectively with that culture? It is important that this emersion
in the target culture has been to the extent that the cross cultural consultant can totally empathise with the
culture and understand its dynamics.
Speaking a Foreign Language
Language carries with it cultural coding. All experts, commentators and
linguists are unanimous that without knowledge of the language the culture can never be appreciated. A cross
cultural consultant will therefore have this insider knowledge not only through living and working in a country
but also by using and understanding the language.
The complexity and diversity of cross cultural challenges in the international business world is reflected in the
broad knowledge and skills of cross cultural consultants. Drawing on expertise gained through a variety of
interrelated fields, the cross cultural consultant is now truly a specialist of great importance.
Lecture 3. Concept of Communication.
Concept of discourse. Structure, functions & non-vebal communication ways of transfer
Definition of Intercultural Communication - what does intercultural communication mean?
Intercultural communication in its most basic form refers to an academic field of study and research. Its seeks
to understand how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world
around them. The findings of such academic research are then applied to 'real life' situations such as how to
create cultural synergy between people from different cultures within a business or how psychologists
understand their patients.
The definition of intercultural communication must also include strands of the field that contribute to it such as
anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication.
There are many researchers and academics of note within the intercultural field, who naturally all have different
definitions of 'intercultual communication'. For example Karlfried Knapp defines it as "'Intercultural
communication,' can...be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which
differ from each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic
forms of symbolic behaviour." For those wanting to dig a bit deeper it may be a good idea to look into the
works of Edward T. Hall, Geert Hofstede, Harry C. Triandis, Fons Trompenaars, Clifford Geertz and Shalom
Schwartz.
The theories developed by the researchers and academics can and has been applied to many fields such as
business.
Lecture 4. Concept of culture.
The concept of foreign culture & ethnocentrism. Culture elements. Culture dynamics.
Cross Cultural Understanding - an examination of common cross cultural terms and their meanings
Terminology within the cross cultural communications field can sometimes be baffling to those reading the
literature, websites or promotional material. Many ask what is the difference between 'intercultural' and 'cross
cultural'? What is 'cross cultural awareness' as opposed to 'cross cultural knowledge' or, are 'cultural sensitivity'
and 'cultural competence' the same thing?
With a view to clarifying some of the above mentioned terminology, this article will examine terms used in
relation to building cross cultural understanding within the business world.
Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people within business to recognise, interpret
and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to misunderstanding due to cultural
differences. The fundamental intention of cross cultural training is to equip the learner(s) with the appropriate
skills to attain cross cultural understanding.
Once the foundations of cross cultural understanding have been laid, the learner(s), either through continued
training or experiences within the workplace, gradually attains a more acute appreciation of cultural differences.
The different types of appreciation are cross cultural knowledge, cross cultural awareness, cross cultural
sensitivity and cross cultural competence. Although all the terms may appear similar in meaning, subtle
differences exist between them.
'Cross Cultural Knowledge' is critical to basic cross cultural understanding. Without it cross cultural
appreciation cannot take place. It refers to a surface level familiarization with cultural characteristics, values,
beliefs and behaviours.
'Cross Cultural Awareness' develops from cross cultural knowledge as the learner understands and appreciates a
culture internally. This may also be accompanied by changes within the learner's behaviour and attitudes such
as a greater flexibility and openness.
'Cross Cultural Sensitivity' is a natural by-product of awareness and refers to an ability to read into situations,
contexts and behaviours that are culturally rooted and be able to react to them appropriately. An suitable
response necessitates that the actor no longer carries his/her own culturally determined interpretations of the
situation or behaviour (i.e. good/bad, right/wrong) which can only be nurtured through both cross cultural
knowledge and awareness.
'Cross Cultural Competence' is and should be the aim of all those dealing with multicultural clients, customers
or colleagues. 'Competence' is the final stage of cross cultural understanding and signifies the actor's ability to
work effectively across cultures. Cross cultural competency is beyond knowledge, awareness and sensitivity in
that it is the digestion, integration and transformation of all the skills and information acquired through them,
applied to create cultural synergy within the workplace.
Lecture 5. Concept of Culture.
Culture Assimilation. The concept of national character. The meaning of “cultured
person”.
Intercultural Training and Stereotypes - a look at the difference between stereotypes and generalizations.
A common observation people make about intercultural awareness training is that it stereotypes people. The
fact that intercultural training presents information on a particular nationality or culture is taken to be a negative
attribute, i.e. that we box people with rigid labels that correlate to their behaviour, values or actions. Such
observations are misplaced.
Intercultural awareness training does provide conclusions on cultures or nationalities but it does not stereotype.
Stereotyping is usually a negative statement about a group of people. A stereotype emerges when a blanket
perception is applied to an entire group of people. For example, we may know one Japanese person who is very
quiet so we conclude that all Japanese are quiet and reserved. Or we see certain media images and conclude that
because a person is Muslim they are prone to violence and aggression against non-Muslims. Both are far from
the truth.
A stereotype is an incorrect perception of a people based on minimal experiential evidence. Stereotyping is
therefore rightly seen as a negative way of seeing people. This is even true of positive stereotypes. Again, a
positive stereotype is where we use a blanket expression for a whole people, i.e. all the Chinese are great at
maths, all Germans are well organised or all English people are well mannered. Although the intent behind the
statement is positive, it still does not reflect the truth.
As a consequence people shy away from making stereotypes and believe every individual should be taken on
their own merit. Although in a perfect world this is an ideal scenario, when preparing someone with
intercultural training to live in India, negotiate in Dubai or work with Brazilians, it is completely impractical.
Intercultural training must therefore provide people with some sort of standard against which they can make
reference. This is done through "generalizations" not stereotypes. Generalizations are different from and far
more reliable than stereotypes. What intercultural training does is observe a people, pinpoint commonalities and
draw certain conclusions based on these. For example, an intercultural researcher or trainer working and/or
living in Kuwait is able to make a few accurate, but at the same time, general statements about the Kuwaitis.
They may therefore be able to make the generalizations that one should be aware of gender roles, that to do
business building a personal relationship is crucial, that if you have a good network of contacts this should be
used, and that decision making can be a long slow process that ultimately always rests at the top of an
organization.
Naturally there will be exceptions to these rules, but generalizations can and do paint a pretty accurate picture
of a country or people. This is because although there are many layers to people, i.e. gender culture, lifestyle
culture, regional culture, etc, they all in one way or another fall under the umbrella of national culture. To a
certain extent then, most people will share common traits defined by their national culture.
A salient point to note is that intercultural training discourages participants from using blanket views of
peoples. The spirit and ethos of intercultural training is to encourage people to discover one another through
personal interaction. Real intercultural awareness only comes through experience. What intercultural training
does is provide people who feel they need to know more about a country before working or living there with a
safety net. This safety net provides them with a safe form of reference when they are unsure about an
intercultural situation. Once that person actually goes though the experience of meeting someone, conducting
negotiations or entertaining a guest they can then discard the safety net and refer to their own experiences.
In conclusion, intercultural training does not stereotype people but provides generalizations. These
generalizations are based upon careful research and observation and offer people with simple guidelines on a
country or culture. These guidelines simply act as an intercultural safety net people can turn to when uncertain.
Only through experience can people really apply true intercultural knowledge and competency.
Lecture 6. Concept of culture.
E. Holl culture categorization: idea of “cultural grammar”. G. Hofstede culture
categorization: idea of “mental programs”
Intercultural Training and the Iceberg Model - why do trainers use the iceberg to explain culture?
Many people question what culture is. How can it be defined? What analogies can be used to describe it? In
intercultural training one of the questions that is often asked of participants is to think what culture means to
them. What picture can they draw to describe it? Whether they draw a tree, cauldron, plate of food or a tapestry
they are all valid as culture means different things to different people. In essence what they are trying to
describe is something that is
made up of lots of things and is
multifaceted.
Within intercultural training
though there is one model or
analogy of culture that most
agree sums up the concept
best; and that is the iceberg.
The iceberg perhaps lends
itself best to this as it so
graphically demonstrates the
idea of having both a visible
and
invisible
structure.
Furthermore, the fate of the
Titanic, whose crew failed to
appreciate the true size of the
unseen part of the iceberg, adds another dimension in illustrating to people within intercultural training what
can happen when this is ignored.
So why the iceberg model? The iceberg as mentioned above has the visible tip. These are the areas of culture
that we can see manifest in the physical sense. In addition, more often than not these are the elements that we
come into contact with first when diving into a new country or culture. Such "visible" elements include things
such as music, dress, dance, architecture, language, food, gestures, greetings, behaviours, devotional practices,
art and more. In addition it can also relate to behaviours such as seeing people ignoring red traffic lights,
spitting on the floor, smoking in public or queuing for a bus. All, depending on your own culture, may come
across as weird, strange, rude, ignorant or simply silly.
None of the visible elements can ever make real sense without understanding the drivers behind them; and
these are hidden on the bottom side of the iceberg, the invisible side. It is these invisible elements that are the
underlying causes of what manifest on the visible side. So, when thinking about culture, the bottom side of the
iceberg will include things such as religious beliefs, worldviews, rules of relationships, approach to the family,
motivations, tolerance for change, attitudes to rules, communication styles, modes of thinking, comfort with
risk, the difference between public and private, gender differences and more.
So for example, why do the English queue for everything? This relates to their approach to fairness, justice,
order and rights. The rationale behind the queue is that those that get there first should by rights be served first
or get on the bus first. Many other cultures simply do not queue in this manner as it is not part of their cultural
programming.
It is for the reasons of clarity that the iceberg model has become so popular. As one can see from the brief
example above it perfectly demonstrates the idea of an unseen world manifesting in many different ways on the
seen.
Lecture 7. Concept of intercultural communication.
Object, subject & methods of investigation. Psychologicak & social basis of intercultural
communication. M. Bennets model of foreign culture assimilation
Stereotypes: An Intercultural No-No - why stereotyping is dangerous.
As more or more people from different backgrounds, countries, cultures and religions immigrate to foreign
lands, those countries become an intercultural melting pot. In order for the native people and the immigrant
population to blend and create a thriving and successful atmosphere both sides need to develop some sort of
intercultural tolerance and understanding of the differences that may exist between them. An example of poor
intercultural understanding, or one based simply on stereotypes, is offered by the town of Herouxville in
Quebec, Canada.
A declaration issued by the town in January 2007, which was designed to inform immigrants, "that the way of
life which they abandoned when they left their countries of origin cannot be recreated here [i.e. Herouxville]".
It then went on to state that the immigrant population would therefore have to refrain from their cultural norms
and activities such as to "kill women by stoning them in public, burning them alive, burning them with acid,
circumcising them, etc."
The declaration paints a rather sad picture of the officials that administer the town and highlights not only their
rather insular outlook but a world view of "others" based on crass and frankly incorrect stereotypes. To simply
consider that anyone from another country (in this case more than likely a Middle Eastern or Asian one) regards
the stoning of women and burning them alive as part of daily life derives from crude, and media led,
stereotypes of other peoples.
Stereotypes are at their most basic level a set of assumed characteristics about a certain group of people whose
actual beliefs, habits and realities more often than not disagree with the imposed assumptions. Stereotypes are
usually based on factors such as exaggeration, distortion, ignorance, racism, cultural factors or even historical
experiences. Stereotyping is therefore rightly seen as a negative way of seeing people. This is even true of what
are called "positive stereotypes". A positive stereotype is where we use a blanket expression for a whole people,
i.e. all the Chinese are great at maths, all Germans are well organised or all English people are well mannered.
Although the intent behind the statement is positive, it still does not reflect the truth.
What we have witnessed in Herouxville should not be seen as an isolated incident. Such assumptions about
foreigners exist all over the planet. However, this does not make it right or excusable. The message it does give
is that there is a lot of work to be done in order to educate people to become more culturally competent.
Cultural competency is a term used to describe the ability to work, communicate and live across cultures and
cultural boundaries. One achieves this through an instilled understanding of cultures on a general level as well
as an informed one about specific cultures on a more detailed level. As well as knowledge it has to work in
tandem with behavioural and attitudinal changes.
Cultural competency is important in this day and age for exactly the reasons cited in this article. We, as citizens
of planet earth, are no longer confined to our national and cultural borders. We mix with people from different
cultures, ethnicities, religions and colours on a daily basis. In order to make this intercultural experience work
on all levels from education to business to government, people have to develop basic skills in intercultural
communication and understanding.
Lecture 8. Concept of intercultural communication.
Social categorization & stereotyping. Cultural relativism. Empathy. Cultures conflict.
In order to assist the officials at Herouxville, five basic steps to cultural competence are presented below:
1. Break Assumptions Everyone makes or has assumptions about others. Assumptions are beliefs rather than
objective truth and are usually influenced by a number of subjective factors. People need to assess their
assumptions and ask themselves why they hold those ideas or beliefs.
2. Empathise
In order to come to appreciate and understand people from different cultures, empathy is
vital. Through putting yourself in someone else's shoes you come to see or appreciate their point of view.
3. Involve
Involving others in your world and involving yourself in other's empowers and educates. Don't
build walls between people but learn from one another.
4. Avoid Herd Mentality
Herd mentality refers to a closed and one dimensional approach. Such a way
of thinking curbs creativity, innovation and advancement as people are restricted in how to think, approach and
engage with people or challenges. Cultural competency can only develop if people are encouraged to think as
individuals, bring their cultural influences to the table and share ideas that may be outside the box.
5. Shun Insensitivity
People can and do behave in culturally insensitive ways. By attacking someone's
person, you attack their culture and therefore their dignity. This can only be divisive. Cultural competency is
based upon people thinking through words and actions to ensure they do not act inappropriately. When
insensitive behaviour is witnessed it is the responsibility of all to shun it and ensure it remains unacceptable.
6. Be Wise
Wisdom is not called wisdom for nothing. People need to be aware how to interact with people
with respect and knowledge. Cultural competency is essentially founded upon wisdom, i.e. showing maturity of
thought and action in dealing with people. Through thinking things out and have background knowledge to
intercultural differences much of the communication problems witnessed within business could be avoided.
Lecture 9. Concept of intercultural communication.
Intercultural competence. Comparative analysis of Kazakhstan cultural peculiarities and
foreign culture
What is Culture? - A collection of quotes examining the meaning of 'culture'.
The question is often asked - "What is culture? How can it be defined and what does it do?"
By way of answering the question a set of quotes has been compiled which hopefully gives some sort of
indication as to what culture actually is.
O Mankind, We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes,
that you may know each other.
The Quran, 49:13
Culture is a thin but very important veneer that you must be careful not to scratch. People from different
cultures are basically the same and respond in the same way. However, make sure that you understand their
basic customs and show an interest and willingness to learn the differences between your cultures.
Mike Wills
Culture is the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas.
E. Schein
Culture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their experience and guide their
action.
Clifford Geertz
Culture is a little like dropping an Alka-Seltzer into a glass-you don't see it, but somehow it does something.
Hans Magnus Enzensberger
Lecture 10 -13. Language and intercultural communication.
Lecture 10) Language as a culture mirror: real world, culture, language. Their
interrelation and interaction.
Lecture 11) Culture reflection in the language. Meaning as a sign and as action. Language
as culture tool.
Lecture 12) Language & national character, anguage & ideology. Language & cultural
identity. Culturonims. Culture & language bans.
Lecture 13) Linguistic personality. Cognitive aspects of secondary personality: thesaurus
problems, secondary personality & secondary “picture” of world. National-cultural
peculiarity of speech behavior. Sepir-Uorf hypothesis.
I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be stuffed. I want the cultures of all the
lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by any.
Mahatma Gandhi
If man is to survive, he will have learned to take a delight in the essential differences between men and between
cultures. He will learn that differences in ideas and attitudes are a delight, part of life's exciting variety, not
something to fear.
Gene Roddenberry
On a group of theories one can found a school; but on a group of values one can found a culture, a civilization,
a new way of living together among men.
Ignazio Silone
A culture may be conceived as a network of beliefs and purposes in which any string in the net pulls and is
pulled by the others, thus perpetually changing the configuration of the whole.
Jacques Barzun
Culture is the name for what people are interested in, their thoughts, their models, the books they read and the
speeches they hear, their table-talk, gossip, controversies, historical sense and scientific training, the values they
appreciate, the quality of life they admire. All communities have a culture. It is the climate of their civilization.
Walter Lippmann
Culture means control over nature.
Johan Huizinga
Culture is roughly anything we do and the monkeys don't.
Lord Raglan
Cross Cultural Negotiation - are cross cultural skills important in negotiations?
Cross cultural negotiation is one of many specialized areas within the wider field of cross cultural
communications. By taking cross cultural negotiation training, negotiators and sales personnel give themselves
an advantage over competitors.
There is an argument that proposes that culture is inconsequential to cross cultural negotiation. It maintains that
as long as a proposal is financially attractive it will succeed. However, this is a naïve way of approaching
international business.
Let us look at a brief example of how cross cultural negotiation training can benefit the international business
person:
There are two negotiators dealing with the same potential client in the Middle East. Both have identical
proposals and packages. One ignores the importance of cross cultural negotiation training believing the
proposal will speak for itself. The other undertakes some cross cultural training. He/she learns about the culture,
values, beliefs, etiquette and approaches to business, meetings and negotiations. Nine times out of ten the latter
will succeed over the rival. This is because 1) it is likely they would have endeared themselves more to the host
negotiation team and 2) they would be able to tailor their approach to the negotiations in a way that maximises
the potential of a positive outcome.
Cross cultural negotiations is about more than just how foreigners close deals. It involves looking at all factors
that can influence the proceedings. By way of highlighting this, a few brief examples of topics covered in cross
cultural negotiation training shall be offered.
Eye Contact: In the US, UK and much of northern Europe, strong, direct eye contact conveys confidence and
sincerity. In South America it is a sign of trustworthiness. However, in some cultures such as the Japanese,
prolonged eye contact is considered rude and is generally avoided.
Personal Space & Touch: In Europe and North America, business people will usually leave a certain amount
of distance between themselves when interacting. Touching only takes place between friends. In South America
or the Middle East, business people are tactile and like to get up close. In Japan or China, it is not uncommon
for people to leave a gap of four feet when conversing. Touching only takes place between close friends and
family members.
Time: Western societies are very 'clock conscious'. Time is money and punctuality is crucial. This is also the
case in countries such as Japan or China where being late would be taken as an insult. However, in South
America, southern Europe and the Middle East, being on time for a meeting does not carry the same sense of
urgency.
Meeting & Greeting: most international business people meet with a handshake. In some countries this is not
appropriate between genders. Some may view a weak handshake as sign of weakness whereas others would
perceive a firm handshake as aggressive. How should people be addressed? Is it by first name, surname or title?
Is small talk part of the proceedings or not?
Gift-Giving: In Japan and China gift-giving is an integral part of business protocol however in the US or UK, it
has negative connotations. Where gifts are exchanged should one give lavish gifts? Are they always
reciprocated? Should they be wrapped? Are there numbers or colours that should be avoided?
All the above in one way or another will impact cross cultural negotiation and can only be learnt through cross
cultural training. Doing or saying the wrong thing at the wrong time, poor communication and cross cultural
misunderstandings can all have harmful consequences.
Cross cultural negotiation training builds its foundations upon understanding etiquettes and approaches to
business abroad before focusing on cross cultural differences in negotiation styles and techniques.
There are three interconnected aspects that need to be considered before entering into cross cultural negotiation.
The Basis of the Relationship: in much of Europe and North America, business is contractual in nature.
Personal relationships are seen as unhealthy as they can cloud objectivity and lead to complications. In South
America and much of Asia, business is personal. Partnerships will only be made with those they know, trust
and feel comfortable with. It is therefore necessary to invest in relationship building before conducting
business.
Information at Negotiations: Western business culture places emphasis on clearly presented and rationally
argued business proposals using statistics and facts. Other business cultures rely on similar information but with
differences. For example, visual and oral communicators such as the South Americans may prefer information
presented through speech or using maps, graphs and charts.
Negotiation Styles: the way in which we approach negotiation differs across cultures. For example, in the
Middle East rather than approaching topics sequentially negotiators may discuss issues simultaneously. South
Americans can become quite vocal and animated. The Japanese will negotiate in teams and decisions will be
based upon consensual agreement. In Asia, decisions are usually made by the most senior figure or head of a
family. In China, negotiators are highly trained in the art of gaining concessions. In Germany, decisions can
take a long time due to the need to analyse information and statistics in great depth. In the UK, pressure tactics
and imposing deadlines are ways of closing deals whilst in Greece this would backfire.
Clearly there are many factors that need to be considered when approaching cross cultural negotiation. Through
cross cultural negotiation training, business personnel are given the appropriate knowledge that can help them
prepare their presentations and sales pitches effectively. By tailoring your behaviour and the way you approach
the negotiation you will succeed in maximising your potential.
Effective Multi-Cultural International Business Meetings - International and mutli-cultural meetings are an area
in which cultural differences are most visible. The article offers some advice on how to minimise clashes of
culture.
Of the many areas in international business where cultural differences manifest is in the corporate meeting
room. International meetings are an area where differences in cultural values, etiquette, interpretations of
professional conduct and corporate rules are at their most visible and challenging to control.
In international business meetings, cultural differences between professionals can and do clash. Although it can
not always be avoided, the negative effects of cultural differences can be minimised with careful and effective
planning, organisation and consideration prior to meetings.
Culture influences what we do, say, think and believe. Culture is different in different countries and contexts. In
the context of international business it affects how people approach, perceive and contribute towards meetings.
A few examples include:
Time Not all cultures live by the clock. Time orientated cultures such as the British or Germans will have
strict approaches to how meetings run. The start time, finishing time and all the different stages in between will
be planned carefully. Other cultures will see the start time as an approximation, the finish time as non-fixed and
all the different stages in between as flexible.
Hierarchy
The hierarchical nature of a culture can have a massive impact on the input given by
participants in an international meeting. For those from hierarchical cultures speaking one's mind, criticising
ideas, disagreeing openly, giving feedback and reporting problems in front of the boss or manager are all areas
they would feel uncomfortable with. To offer a criticism of the manager's idea would be seen as a loss of face
for both the manager and the criticiser.
The Purpose of Meetings
After a few pleasantries in the meeting room, the common term in the West is,
'let's get down to business'. Western meetings generally run to a tight schedule with an organised, pre-planned
agenda. Meetings are for business. On the other hand, different cultures see the meeting as the arena for
building personal relationships and strengthening bonds. Getting down to business comes further down the
priority list.
When chairing an international business meeting it is always advisable to bear in mind the attendees' cultures
and backgrounds. Is it a very varied group or do the majority of participants have cultural similarities? Think
about their approaches to meetings. How have they acted in meetings before? Can you identify the cultural
reason why?
Following are some guidelines that may assist you when approaching cultural diversity in your next
international business meeting.
Meeting Etiquette and Mannerisms
In highly diverse international companies, one can find participants in
a meeting from the four corners of the globe. Each will have their own cultural etiquettes, gestures, mannerisms
and ways of expression. Shouting, throwing hands around and even storming out of meetings are all
possibilities. In such a company it may be advisable to provide inter-cultural awareness training to staff to
minimise misunderstandings. Where differences are not as acute it may be up to you as the chair to understand
how certain etiquettes, gestures and general meeting room tactics may be perceived and how you can minimise
any adverse impact.
Expectations of Meetings
Prior to the meeting make it clear what the purpose of the meeting will be.
What is the goal of the meeting? Why are you asking each attendant? What do expect from them? Contact the
participants and discuss the meeting and what you require of each person. If ready, send them the agenda. If it
is a brainstorming meeting then maybe ask each participant to bring at least three suggestions with them. If it is
a meeting bringing together different areas within a company, let each attendant know what people would like
to hear about from them. Once a framework is in place people will know where they fit into the picture.
Take a Relaxed Approach to Meetings
Many people find business meetings daunting. This may be a
combination of stage fright, sitting in front of the boss and feeling inferior to colleagues. This will lead to
anxiety, tension, nervousness and general discomfort. Try introducing subtle differences to a meeting to put
people at ease. Ice breakers offer a good tension release at the beginning of a meeting. Warm ups offer a similar
benefit. Try using an alternative setting instead of the meeting room. Consider changes in the lighting or
ambience.
Group Sizes in Meetings
In short, small groups will work more effectively in meetings. Smaller groups
offer increased security and allow for greater participation. In international business meetings, using smaller
groups can be used in two ways.
First, prior to a large international business meeting identify who will be coming and what they can contribute.
Will the meeting cover different topics? Will it require input from different business areas? If you are organised
enough you can initiate some smaller meetings where you group participants who are comfortable with one
another or who share expertise in the same area. Ask the groups to take their conclusions to the next, larger,
meeting. Participants there will now feel comfortable with their contributions and ideas.
Second, if the company culture allows, break your meeting up into smaller groups where feedback and open
discussion may flow more easily. Then ask a delegated head of each group to summarise their findings. This
may allow those who would not normally speak out in front of larger groups to get their views across.
Multi-Cultural Meetings
A major mistake made when dealing with diverse cultures in one meeting room
is to suggest that those of similar backgrounds work, group or be seated together. Rather than allow for greater
fluency in the meeting this will have the opposite affect. Once cosy in their cultural groups, participants will
slip into their cultural patterns. It is vital you mix up your meeting. The additional benefit to this approach is
that it allows for cross cultural interpersonal relationships to develop, strengthening staff bonds.
Alternative Communication Methods in Meetings
Most international meetings take on a basic format and structure whereby an agenda is set and attendants
contribute to the topic of discussion orally. If you have participants who potentially will be very quiet and nonparticipatory then consider some alternative methods of communication.
For example, prior to the meeting, e-mail members of staff some questions regarding the forthcoming topics.
Give them open-ended questions as to their opinions. Ask them to e-mail back their replies which can then be
used to instigate their contribution in the meeting.
If you know some participants are uncomfortable speaking, then why not let them write? Either use a white
board or offer to take suggestions and opinions on paper?
Always Confirm Meanings in Meetings
Different cultural assumptions as to the meaning of a word, phrase, symbol, picture or agreement can cause
confusion before and after a meeting. When approaching a topic or after consensus has been agreed upon a
subject always confirm that the general meaning has been agreed upon and understood. Where potential
problems may exist as to interpretation always simplify meanings. If the meeting will deal with complex
language or concepts consider forming a consensus on the meaning all participants will be comfortable with,
then circulating them in advance of the meeting for review.
At the end of a meeting, summarise and capture the main agreements and disagreements. Ensure everyone is
happy with them.
International business meetings require great planning, organisation and consideration if they are to succeed in
offering effective outcomes. Always consider the cultural variants you will be dealing with and think of ways to
overcome potential problems. The above mentioned tips are merely basic pointers that will hopefully help you
start to think about how culture impacts international meetings.
Lecture 14-15. Translation and Intercultural Communication.
Lecture 14) Language & translation interaction. Translator & intercultural competence.
Lecture 15) Translators as “culture curiers”. Cultural-contextual peculiarities of different
genres texts and their regard at translation.
Cross Cultural Communication across Languages - some tips on how to overcome the language barrier and get
your message across.
Cross cultural communication is not the sole reserve of the business world. In fact, all of us in one form or
another come across situations that require some kind of cross cultural communication and understanding.
One such situation is when communicating with foreigners. We all encounter people at work, on holiday or
elsewhere who do not share the same language as us. Although we consider language the main means of
communicating, language only represents 7% of what we communicate. There are many ways of overcoming
the language barrier to allow for some cross cultural communication.
When faced with a situation in which there is no common language these points may help you to get your
message across:
Say it without words: use hands, arms, legs, gestures, facial expressions and everything else your charades
experience has taught you.
Use emotions: even in our own language and culture we do not always use language to express fright,
frustration, anger or joy. Emotions transcend linguistic barriers.
Try out words: sometimes we share common words and we do not know it. Additionally people from different
cultures will have a passive knowledge of English gained through the media. Try saying the word slowly or
with
a
different
pronunciation.
Draw it: if you really cannot explain 'milk' to the Greek shop owner draw the cow, the udders and the milk.
Pictures speak louder than words. Most cultures will be able to spot what you are getting at straight away.
Ask for help: if there are others around you do not be shy to ask for their assistance. It is often possible to find
a willing translator.
Confirm meanings: if you are unsure whether the message has been understood confirm meanings. When
doing so do not ask, 'Do you understand?' as the answer will often be 'yes' even if it is 'no'. Try re-phrasing what
you have agreed or discussed.
Be patient: the key to overcoming the language barrier is to exercise patience. It is not your fault or the other
person's that you cannot speak each others language.
The above points will help you to overcome cross cultural communication problems and ensure you manage to
get your message across in one form or another.
Nonverbal communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through
sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e., language is not the only source of
communication, there are other means also. Messages can be communicated through gestures
and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye
contact. Meaning can also be communicated through object or artifacts (such as clothing,
hairstyles or architecture), symbols, and icons (or graphics). Speech contains nonverbal elements
known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well
as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a form of
nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting
style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page.
However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face
interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where
communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of
communicators during interaction.[1]
Contents
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1 Verbal vs. oral communication
2 History
3 Arbitrariness
4 Characteristics of nonverbal communication
5 Clothing and bodily characteristics
6 Physical environment
o 6.1 Proxemics: physical space in communication
o 6.2 Chronemics: time in communication
 6.2.1 Monochronic Time
 6.2.2 Polychronic Time
7 Movement and body position
o 7.1 Kinesics
o 7.2 Posture
o 7.3 Gesture
o 7.4 Haptics: touching in communication
8 Eye gaze
9 Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice
10 Functions of nonverbal communication
o 10.1 Concealing deception
11 The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
o 11.1 The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
o 11.2 Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
 11.2.1 Repeating
 11.2.2 Conflicting
 11.2.3 Complementing
 11.2.4 Substituting
 11.2.5 Regulating
 11.2.6 Accenting/Moderating
12 Dance and nonverbal communication
13 Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
14 Difficulties with nonverbal communication
15 Footnotes
16 See also
17 References
18 External links
[edit] Verbal vs. oral communication
Scholars in this field usually use a strict sense of the term "verbal", meaning "of or concerned
with words", and do not use "verbal communication" as a synonym for oral or spoken
communication. Thus, vocal sounds that are not considered to be words, such as a grunt, or
singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are generally understood as
forms of verbal communication, as both make use of words — although like speech, both may
contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal
communication can occur through any sensory channel — sight, sound, smell, touch or taste.
Nonverbal communication is important as:
"When we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language. But our
judgment includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal
cues. Body movements are not usually positive or negative in and of themselves; rather, the
situation and the message will determine the appraisal." (Givens, 2000, p. 4)
[edit] History
The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's book The
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued that all mammals show
emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number of fields, including ,
linguistics, semiotics and social psychology.
[edit] Arbitrariness
While much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture
to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally understood.
Paul Ekman's influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that expressions of anger,
disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal.
[edit] Characteristics of nonverbal communication
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Non-verbal messages primarily communicate emotions, attitudes.
Non-verbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize or regulate verbal message.
Non-verbal cues are often ambiguous.
Non-verbal cues are continuous.
Non-verbal cues are more reliable.
Non-verbal cues are culture bound.
[edit] Clothing and bodily characteristics
Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. This man's clothes identify him
as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his
job and rank.
Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send
nonverbal messages during interaction. For example, a study[2], carried out in Vienna, Austria, of
the clothing worn by women attending discothèques showed that in certain groups of women
(especially women who were in town without their partners) motivation for sex, and levels of
sexual hormones, were correlated with aspects of the clothing, especially the amount of skin
displayed, and the presence of sheer clothing, e.g. at the arms. Thus, to some degree, clothing
sent signals about interest in courtship.
Research into height has generally found that taller people are perceived as being more
impressive. Melamed & Bozionelos (1992) studied a sample of managers in the UK and found
that height was a key factor affecting who was promoted. Often people try to make themselves
taller, for example, standing on a platform, when they want to make more of an impact with their
speaking.
[edit] Physical environment
Environmental factors such as furniture, architectural style, interior decorating, lighting
conditions, colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators during
interaction. The furniture itself can be seen as a nonverbal message[1]
[edit] Proxemics: physical space in communication
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The
space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is
interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures[3] and different settings
within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories:
intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding
personal space.[4] Hargie & Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories:
1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has exclusive
use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the owner’s permission.
2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no “right” to occupancy, but people
may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example, someone may
sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone else sits there.
3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such
as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over
that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was found that people take
longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space.
4. Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around the
group rather than disturb it.
[edit] Chronemics: time in communication
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive
time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the
stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the
speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action
as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the
interpretation of nonverbal messages. Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2 dominant
time patterns:
[edit] Monochronic Time
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into
precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.
The United States is considered a monochronic society. This perception of time is learned and
rooted in the Industrial Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and
in place at an appointed hour" (Guerrero, DeVito & Hecht, 1999, p. 238). For Americans, time is
a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. "We buy time, save time, spend time and
make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and
even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning
for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we must go to at a
certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at
certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.” [1]
As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote regarding the American’s viewpoint of time in
the business world, “the schedule is sacred.” Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as the
American culture, “time is tangible” and viewed as a commodity where “time is money” or
“time is wasted.” The result of this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic
cultures, such as the German and Swiss, place a paramount value on schedules, tasks and
“getting the job done.” These cultures are committed to regimented schedules and may view
those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.
Monochronic cultures include Germany, Canada, Switzerland, United States, and Scandinavia.
[edit] Polychronic Time
A polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more
fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike European-Americans and most northern and
western European cultures, Native American, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the
polychronic system of time.
These cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every
moment. As Raymond Cohen notes, polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather
than in tasks—a clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that
"Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face
have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural
life, and the calendar of religious festivities" (Cohen, 1997, p. 34).
Instead, their culture is more focused on relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have
no problem being “late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship
is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of
time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the
polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on
schedule is an impossibility.” [2]
Polychronic cultures include Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Mexico, Philippines, India, and many in
Africa.
[edit] Movement and body position
[edit] Kinesics
Information about the relationship and affect of these two skaters is communicated by their body
posture, eye gaze and physical contact.
The term "Kinesics" was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished
to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of
Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing them to
show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study was joined by
several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson.
[edit] Posture
Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or involvement, the
difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other
communicator.[5] Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships
suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person’s left side is parallel to the other
person’s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person
who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment
during communication.[6] Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean,
body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
[edit] Gesture
A wink is a type of gesture.
A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning. They may be articulated
with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as
winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes. The boundary between language and gesture, or verbal
and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.
Although the study of gesture is still in its infancy, some broad categories of gestures have been
identified by researchers. The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures.
These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such
as the hand-wave used in the US for "hello" and "goodbye". A single emblematic gesture can
have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to
highly offensive.[9] For a list of emblematic gestures, see list of gestures.
Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak.
These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The so-called beat gestures are used in
conjunction with speech and keep time with the rhythm of speech to emphasize certain words or
phrases. These types of gestures are integrally connected to speech and thought processes.[10]
Other spontaneous gestures used when we speak are more contentful and may echo or elaborate
the meaning of the co-occurring speech.For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing
may be synchronous with the utterance, "He threw the ball right into the window."[10]
Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as
complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with
finger spelling, in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a written alphabet.
Gestures can also be categorized as either speech-independent or speech-related. Speechindependent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct
verbal translation.[7] A wave hello or a peace sign are examples of speech-independent gestures.
Speech related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal
communication is used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech related
gestures are intended to provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing
to an object of discussion.
Gestures such as Mudra (Sanskrit) encode sophisticated information accessible to initiates that
are privy to the subtlety of elements encoded in their tradition.
[edit] Haptics: touching in communication
A high five is an example of communicative touch.
Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as
communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping,
high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking,
picking, holding, and scratching.[7] These behaviors are referred to as "adapter" or "tells" and
may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The meaning
conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the context of the situation, the relationship
between communicators, and the manner of touch.[8]
Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as
immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are: smiling, touching,open body
positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are known to be high
contact cultures.
Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via
touching. Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing information
about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in interpersonal
relationships, and vital in conveying physical intimacy. It can be both sexual (such as kissing)
and platonic (such as hugging or tickling).
Touch is the earliest sense to develop in the fetus. The development of an infant's haptic senses
and how it relates to the development of the other senses such as vision has been the target of
much research. Human babies have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving if they
do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and hearing. Babies who can perceive
through touch, even without sight and hearing, tend to fare much better. Touch can be thought of
as a basic sense in that most life forms have a response to being touched, while only a subset
have sight and hearing.
In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly
but cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving
rhesus monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother", a wire feeding
apparatus wrapped in softer terry cloth which provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort,
were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire
mother.(Harlow,1958)
Touching is treated differently from one country to another and socially acceptable levels of
touching vary from one culture to another (Remland, 2009). In the Thai culture, for example,
touching someone's head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied groups of
people communicating and found that in England (8%), France (5%) and the Netherlands (4%)
touching was rare compared to their Italian (14%) and Greek (12.5%) sample.[9]
Striking, pushing, pulling, pinching, kicking, strangling and hand-to-hand fighting are forms of
touch in the context of physical abuse. In a sentence like "I never touched him/her" or "Don't you
dare to touch him/her" the term touch may be meant as euphemism for either physical abuse or
sexual touching. To 'touch oneself' is a euphemism for masturbation.
The word touch has many other metaphorical uses. One can be emotionally touched, referring to
an action or object that evokes an emotional response. To say "I was touched by your letter"
implies the reader felt a strong emotion when reading it. Usually does not include anger, disgust
or other forms of emotional rejection unless used in a sarcastic manner.
Stoeltje (2003) wrote about how Americans are ‘losing touch’ with this important
communication skill. During a study conducted by University of Miami School of Medicine,
Touch Research Institutes, American children were said to be more aggressive than their French
counterparts while playing at a playground. It was noted that French women touched their
children more
[edit] Eye gaze
The study of the role of eyes in nonverbal communication is sometimes referred to as
"oculesics". Eye contact can indicate interest, attention, and involvement. Studies have found
that people use their eyes to indicate their interest and with more than the frequently recognized
actions of winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. Eye contact is an event when two
people look at each other's eyes at the same time. It is a form of nonverbal communication and
has a large influence on social behavior. Frequency and interpretation of eye contact vary
between cultures and species. Eye aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye contact and
facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without
consciously doing so, probe each other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. [8]
Gaze comprises the actions of looking while talking, looking while listening, amount of gaze,
and frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate.[10]
[edit] Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice
Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice. Various
acoustic properties of speech such as tone, pitch and accent, collectively known as prosody, can
all give off nonverbal cues. Paralanguage may change the meaning of words.
The linguist George L. Trager developed a classification system which consists of the voice set,
voice qualities, and vocalization.[11]



The voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the
situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture.
The voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality,
and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print".
Vocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and segregates.
Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and
yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a message - for example, yelling
"Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uhhuh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening.
[edit] Functions of nonverbal communication
Argyle (1970) [12] put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for
communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to
establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to
communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to
avoid embarrassing situations [13].
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human
communication:[14]



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Express emotions
Express interpersonal attitudes
To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
Self-presentation of one’s personality

Rituals (greetings)
[edit] Concealing deception
Nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is the conclusion of
a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having stolen a wallet.
The interviewees lied in about 50 % of the cases. People had access to either written transcripts
of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that were
available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were
judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use voice tone and face
expression to give the impression that they are truthful [15].
However, there are many cited examples of 'leakage' cues [16], where clues to deceivers' true
concealed opinions or knowledge are unwittingly provided in the nonverbal (paraverbal and
visual) communication channels. Most studies examining the leakage hypothesis from visual
cues rely upon hand coding of video footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008[17]), a method that is open to coding
errors. A recent study, however, demonstrated clear bodily movement differences between truthtellers and liars using an automated body motion capture system: truth-tellers demonstrated
greater overall bodily movement compared to liars in two different situations[18].
[edit] The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
[edit] The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
An interesting question is: When two people are communicating face-to-face, how much of the
meaning is communicated verbally, and how much is communicated non-verbally? This was
investigated by Albert Mehrabian and reported in two papers [19][20]. The latter paper concluded:
"It is suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and facial attitude
communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with coefficients of .07, .38,
and .55, respectively." This "rule" that clues from spoken words, from the voice tone, and from
the facial expression, contribute 7 %, 38 %, and 55 % respectively to the total meaning, is widely
cited. It is presented on all types of popular courses with statements like "scientists have found
out that . . . ". In reality, however, it is extremely weakly founded. First, it is based on the
judgment of the meaning of single tape-recorded words, i.e. a very artificial context. Second, the
figures are obtained by combining results from two different studies which potentially cannot be
combined. Third, it relates only to the communication of positive versus negative emotions.
Fourth, it relates only to women, as men did not participate in the study.
Since then, other studies have analysed the relative contribution of verbal and nonverbal signals
under more naturalistic situations. Argyle [12] , using video tapes shown to the subjects, analysed
the communication of submissive/dominant attitude and found that non-verbal cues had 4.3
times the effect of verbal cues. The most important effect was that body posture communicated
superior status in a very efficient way. On the other hand, a study by Hsee et al.[21] had subjects
judge a person on the dimension happy/sad and found that words spoken with minimal variation
in intonation had an impact about 4 times larger than face expressions seen in a film without
sound. Thus, the relative importance of spoken words and facial expressions may be very
different in studies using different set-ups.
[edit] Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways:
repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating.
[edit] Repeating
"Repeating" consists of using gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as pointing to the
object of discussion.[22]
[edit] Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or
conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously
fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction.
Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of
uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration.[23] When mixed messages occur, nonverbal
communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify
the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people
perceive mixed messages during interactions.
[edit] Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication
complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce
the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to
be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.[24]
[edit] Substituting
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message.
People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as
corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without
verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively
communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.[25]
[edit] Regulating
Nonverbal behavior also regulates our conversations. For example, touching someone's arm can
signal that you want to talk next or interrupt.[25]
[edit] Accenting/Moderating
Nonverbal signals are used to alter the interpretation of verbal messages. Touch, voice pitch, and
gestures are some of the tools people use to accent or amplify the message that is sent; nonverbal
behavior can also be used to moderate or tone down aspects of verbal messages as well.[26] For
example, a person who is verbally expressing anger may accent the verbal message by shaking a
fist.
[edit] Dance and nonverbal communication
Dance is a form of nonverbal communication that requires the same underlying faculty in the
brain for conceptualization, creativity and memory as does verbal language in speaking and
writing. Means of self-expression, both forms have vocabulary (steps and gestures in dance),
grammar (rules for putting the vocabulary together) and meaning. Dance, however, assembles
(choreographs) these elements in a manner that more often resembles poetry, with its ambiguity
and multiple, symbolic and elusive meanings.
[edit] Clinical studies of nonverbal communication
From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal
communication was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar
paradigm.[27].Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State
University had subjects observe gamblers at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this
payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed
by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr. Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James
Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin addicts [28] and
phencyclidine abusers[29] was contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts. Men with
major depression[30] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when
compared with euthymic men.
Freitas-Magalhaes studied the effect of smile in the treatment of depression and concluded that
depressive states decrease when you smile more often.[31]
Obese women[32] and women with premenstrual syndrome[33] were found to also possess
diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed
increased abilities.[34]. A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found
unable to transmit any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[35]. Because of the changes in levels of
accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a
biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because
certain drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and
endorphin were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data,
however, the primary cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the
paradigm employed[36].
A byproduct of the work of the Pittsburgh/Yale/ Ohio State team was an investigation of the role
of nonverbal facial cues in heterosexual nondate rape. Males who were serial rapists of adult
women were studied for nonverbal receptive abilities. Their scores were the highest of any
subgroup.[37] Rape victims were next tested. It was reported that women who had been raped on
at least two occasions by different perpetrators had a highly significant impairment in their
abilities to read these cues in either male or female senders.[38] These results were troubling,
indicating a predator-prey model. The authors did note that whatever the nature of these
preliminary findings the responsibility of the rapist was in no manner or level, diminished.
The final target of study for this group was the medical students they taught. Medical students at
Ohio State University, Ohio University and Northest Ohio Medical College were invited to serve
as subjects. Students indicating a preference for the specialties of family practice, psychiatry,
pediatrics and obstetrics-gynecology achieved significantly higher levels of accuracy than those
students who planned to train as surgeons, radiologists, or pathologists. Internal medicine and
plastic surgery candidates scored at levels near the mean[39].
[edit] Difficulties with nonverbal communication
People vary in their ability to send and receive nonverbal communication. On average, to a
moderate degree, women are better at nonverbal communication than are men [40][41][42][43].
Measurements of the ability to communicate nonverbally and the capacity to feel empathy have
shown that the two abilities are independent of each other [44].
For people who have relatively large difficulties with nonverbal communication, this can pose
significant challenges, especially in interpersonal relationships. There exist resources that are
tailored specifically to these people, which attempt to assist those in understanding information
which comes more easily to others. A specific group of persons that face these challenges are
those with autism spectrum disorders, including Asperger syndrome.
2
Politesse
Politesse is the use of courteous formality to show respect and consideration for others. Many
Americans have become quite informal and "easy-going" -- to the point we may seem overly
casual and abrupt to foreigners. But for most of the world the old standards still exist.
In France, for example, you should liberally pepper phrases with "Monsieur," "Madame," and
"s'il vous plaоt." People throughout the world expect to be addressed with respect by a stranger.
The Ugly American Syndrome
Gestures and Nonverbal Communication
If you want to be polite it's a good idea to tone-down gestures when traveling, since you
probably won't know all the local customs and mores. In general, don't point your hand or foot at
anyone, or belch, yawn, or fart loudly, unless, of course, you're joining in.
In Thailand it's rude to expose the sole of your shoe or foot to someone, to step over someone,
and to touch anyone on the head. In India and other places where toilet paper isn't significant to
the culture, touching anyone or presenting anything with the left hand will raise more than
eyebrows.
Western travelers, on the other hand, may be distressed by the tendency of some Arabs in normal
conversation to lock unblinking eyes mere inches from yours. As noted by American
anthropologist Edward T. Hall, this is normal conversational distance for Arabs. (Indeed some
Arabs believe they can determine reaction to what is being said by looking closely at pupils: if
they dilate, you like or approve; if they contract, you dislike or disapprove.)
In the 1950's Hall pioneered proxemics and kinesics, which are the studies of how people of
different cultures use nonverbal signals to communicate.
Proxemics
includes social distances between communicators, and the use of time, smell, touch,
space, and territoriality (untouchable space).
Kinesics
includes body movement, gestures, facial expression, eye contact, posture, and speaking
volume.
Since most people are unaware of their own cultural patterns of nonverbal communication, they
are unprepared to deal with the patterns of other cultures. This is probably a major cause of
misunderstanding between cultures as we interpret each other as rude, pushy, childlike, cold,
etc., usually not for what is said, but how it is said, and how we act.
Hall's books are required reading for Peace Corps volunteers. Several are listed in the
bibliography, and all are helpful for communicating with a higher level of understanding. But
just being aware of the nonverbal aspects of communication will help. I recommend for travelers
to be sensitive to the rhythm of ordinary life around them, and to try to get in sync with that
rhythm.
This is actually easy as humans have a natural instinct for mimicry. While you don't need to outZelig Woody Allen in Zelig (in which he takes on the appearance of a Chinese after a few weeks
in China), for most Americans slowing-down and getting with the beat of local life is essential
for absorbing the richness of a foreign culture.
Sign Language
Don't be embarrassed to use sign language. It works great, gets better with practice, and is an
age-old and completely normal method of communication. You already know dozens of signs.
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Eat, hungry, food, restaurant--Motion to open mouth, pat stomach.
Don't know--Shoulders shrugged, hands and eyebrows raised.
Money, expensive, how much?--Thumb and fingers rubbed together.
A little--Thumb and forefinger held close together.
Time--Tap of wrist.
Oops!--Fingers to mouth, eyes open wide.
Which way, where?--Fingers pointed in opposite directions with quizzical look.
Nice to see you--Smile.
This isn't what I ordered!--Face contorted to Munch's The Scream.
Talking With Backpackers
Backpackers from all over the world can pretty much say anything to strike up a conversation.
One English backpacker opened up with about ten lines of Shakespeare I couldn't quite catch.
(My reply: "Et tu, Brutus?") You don't always have to begin with where are you from, how long
have you been traveling, how do you like it, etc. While everyone is an exception some of the
time, overall we are an interesting, fun, and good-humored bunch. And we all know one of the
best sources of information is other travelers.
Listen for Good Advice
If you travel on a low budget you will probably get a lot of advice from the people you meet.
Some of it will be of the highest value. Some of it will be pure crap.
Communicating in Small-Scale, Traditional Societies
In such societies you will be expected to be an envoy from your family. They may ask first and
foremost about your family, ask to see pictures, ask what they do, etc. You might carry a family
photo for such occasions.
With one group I visited it was customary to seek out and individually greet each person in
descending order from eldest to youngest, including children. This took a few pleasant minutes
for a gathering of about twenty. It's probably a good general rule to show respect to elders first
and foremost.
Understand that you are on their turf. Be polite and gracious. Try to be sensitive and not make
snap judgments. It takes years for anthropologists to get an accurate feel for what's going on in
any society. As a traveler you can't expect to do much more than observe.
I recommend taking it easy with the camera. Pulling out a camera often changes the dynamics of
communication for the worse--if not eliminating it entirely. Most tourist photography I see is
intrusive and a kind of trophy--and it really does take away something. While some people don't
seem to mind, there may be a larger story beneath the surface smiles and nods.
Many cultures frown upon or prohibit photography. In one village near San Cristуbal de las
Casas, Chiapas photographers face a $65 fine, confiscation of film and camera, and even a night
in jail. The villagers' sincere religious beliefs (which are not Catholic) run counter to the desires
of most tourists. The Tarahumara people of northern Mexico endure a great deal of photography
from tourists, but if you ever talk to these quiet and shy people privately, you'll find they really
don't like it.
If you want someone's photograph don't flash your camera in their unsuspecting face for a quick
snap, be a sneak-thief with telephoto, or throw candy to children. Instead, approach your subject
with all the human warmth and politesse you can muster, register your intent with a motion to
your camera, and let them know their time and cooperation is a treasure.
If a tip is desired consider the offer with respect, even if you ultimately decline. Sending your
subject a beautiful print may be much appreciated. Approached correctly, many people will be
happy to pose.
As I wrote this I was thinking of someone I met and didn't photograph, a middle-aged woman in
fantastic native dress, her smile, beauty, and dignity.
Song
In New Zealand an older Japanese woman descended from a tour bus and approached Reg, a tall
and wild-haired Maori fellow I was hitchhiking with, and began singing what sounded like a
traditional Japanese song, perhaps of greeting. Then she bowed and smiled, returned to her bus,
and waved as she zoomed off.
That evening we clinked our beer glasses to toast that wonderful woman. It was our considered
opinion that if you have a song to sing, by all means, sing it.