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Honors Living Environment Midterm Exam Study Guide Chapter 1 The Science of Biology Science observation Hypothesis controlled experiment Dependent variable control group Data biology Stimulus sexual reproduction Homeostasis metabolism inference independent variable controlled variables (constants) DNA asexual reproduction 1. What are the parts of the scientific method? Purpose, hypothesis, procedures, data/observations, analysis, conclusion 2. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable in a controlled experiment. The independent variable is the one that gets manipulated or changed. It is what is being studied. The dependent variable responds to the changes made to the independent variable. This is the variable that you measure during the lab. 3. What is the purpose of the control group? It is used as a comparison, to see what would normally take place without the change to the independent variable. 4. What characteristics do all living things share? All living things can respond to stimuli, maintain homeostasis, obtain materials and energy, contain cells, contain DNA, grow and develop, change over time (evolve), and reproduce. 5. What are the parts of a microscope? *See Attached Diagram* 6. How do microscopes affect the image of an object? The image is upside down, backwards, and enlarged. 7. How can microscopes be used to estimate the size of a specimen? The diameter of the field of view divided by the number of cells in that diameter. Chapter 2 The Chemistry of Life Atom nucleus Element isotope Ionic bond ion Molecule van der Waals forces Cohesion adhesion Solution solute Suspension pH scale Base buffer Polymer carbohydrate Lipid nucleic acid Protein amino acid Reactant product Catalyst enzyme electron compound covalent bond hydrogen bond mixture solvent acid monomer monosaccharide nucleotide chemical reaction activation energy substrate 8. What subatomic particles make up an atom? Protons, neutrons, electrons 9. What are the main types of chemical bonds? Covalent, ionic, hydrogen 10. What are the unique properties of water? Water is a polar molecule which accounts water’s characteristics. 11. What elements does carbon bond with to make up life’s molecules? Carbon bonds with hydrogen to make organic molecules. Other elements found in some organic compounds are oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. 12. What are the functions of the four types of macromolecules? Carbohydrates – energy source; proteins – transport, regulate, involved in immune responses, repair; lipids – energy source; nucleic acids – store and transmit genetic information 13. What happens to chemical bonds during a chemical reaction? They break and reform creating new and different substances. 14. What role do enzymes play in living things and what affects their function? Enzymes are protein catalysts. They speed up chemical reaction without being part of the reaction. A change in pH or temperature could affect their function. Chapter 7 Cell Structure and Function Cell cell theory Nucleus eukaryote Cytoplasm organelle Lysosome cytoskeleton Ribosome endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion cell wall Lipid bilayer selectively permeable Facilitated diffusion osmosis Hypertonic hypotonic Active transport endocytosis Tissue organ cell membrane prokaryote vacuole centriole Golgi apparatus chloroplast diffusion isotonic osmotic pressure exocytosis organ system 15. What is the cell theory? all living things are made of cells, cells come from other cells, cells make up the basic unit of structure and function in a living thing. 16. How are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells similar? Different? *see Venn Diagram below* 17. Which organelles are found in prokaryotic cells? Which are found in eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes only contain ribosomes. Eukaryotes contain all other organelles (keep in mind the differences between plant and animal cells.) 18. Which organelles store, clean up and support the cell? Vacuoles; lysosomes; cytoskeleton 19. Which organelles build proteins? ribosomes 20. Which organelles capture and release energy? Chloroplasts; mitochondria 21. Which structures form cellular boundaries? Cell membrane – all cells; cell wall – plant, fungi, and bacteria 22. Explain the effects of osmosis on cells when they are in: an isotonic solution – same strength; equal movement in and out a hypertonic solution – above strength; overall movement out a hypotonic solution – below strength; overall movement in 23. How do individual cells maintain homeostasis? All organelles work together 24. How do cells of multicellular organisms work together to maintain homeostasis. Cells are specialized to perform a function 25. Give a specific example of an organism’s cells working together to maintain homeostasis. *see diagram below* Chapter 8 Photosynthesis ATP Photosynthesis Thylakoid ATP synthase heterotroph pigment stroma Calvin cycle autotroph chlorophyll photosystem carbon-fixation 26. Why is ATP useful to cells? Provides energy for cellular processes. 27. What role do pigments play in the process of photosynthesis? Absorb energy from the sun 28. What organelle is the site of photosynthesis? chloroplasts 29. What are electron carrier molecules? Give examples. NADH+, FAD+, NAD+ are all electron carriers. They carry high energy electrons to other areas of the organelle for the cellular process to continue. 30. What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis? Reactants: carbon dioxide and water; Products: oxygen and glucose 31. What is the word equation and chemical equation (balanced) for photosynthesis? 32. What happens during light-dependent reactions? Energy from the sun is absorbed; water enters the equation; oxygen released; electron carriers bring high energy electrons to the light independent reaction in the stroma 33. What happens during light-independent reactions? Carbon dioxide enters (carbon fixation occurs); glucose is produced 34. What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis? Amount of sunlight; carbon dioxide; water Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation Cellular respiration aerobic Glycolysis Krebs cycle anaerobic fermentation 35. Where do organisms get energy? food 36. What is cellular respiration? The process of breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen to release energy 37. What is the relationship between cellular respiration and photosynthesis? These are opposite processes 38. What organelle is the site of cellular respiration? mitochondria 39. What happens during glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain? Glycolysis – glucose broken down to pyruvic acid and 2 ATP produced (occurs in cytoplasm); Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) – each pyruvic acid converted to other carbon forms, 1 ATP for each pyruvic acid (occurs in mitochondrial matrix); electron transport chain – electron carriers bring high energy electrons to the inner membrane of the mitochondria, oxygen is the final electron acceptor, 32 ATP produced. 40. How much ATP does cellular respiration generate? GRAND TOTAL ATP = 36 41. What is the word equation and chemical equation for cellular respiration? 42. What is the word equation for lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation? 43. Under what conditions does fermentation take place? No oxygen present Chapter 10 Cell Growth and Division Chromosome chromatin Interphase mitosis Prophase metaphase Telophase centromere Apoptosis cancer Embryo differentiation cell cycle cytokinesis anaphase chromatid tumor stem cell 44. What are the differences between sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction? asexual reproduction – one organism giving rise to two identical organisms; sexual reproduction – two different organisms giving rise to a third genetically different organism 45. What are the main events of the cell cycle? Interphase (growth, DNA replication, organelle replication); mitotic phase (nuclear division); cytokinesis (cell splits) 46. What is the difference between plant cell cytokinesis and animal cell cytokinesis? Plant cells create a cell plate from which the cell wall and cell membrane will form. 47. What stage of the cell cycle occurs after cytokinesis? interphase 48. How do daughter cells and parent cell compare at the end of mitosis? Genetically identical. Therefore, if a cell started out with 16 chromosomes in interphase, at the end of the cell cycle each new daughter cell would contain 16 chromosomes. 49. What regulates the cell cycle? Regulatory proteins 50. How are cancer cells different from other cells? They divide out of control. 51. How are stem cells different from other cells? They have the ability to differentiate into almost any other cell type. Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics Genetics fertilization Hybrid gene Principle of dominance segregation Probability homozygous Phenotype genotype Independent assortment incomplete dominance Multiple allele polygenic trait Homologous diploid Tetrad crossing-over trait allele gamete heterozygous Punnett square codominance meiosis haploid zygote 52. How are different forms of a gene distributed to offspring? On chromosomes in reproductive cells 53. What did Gregor Mendel contribute to our understanding of genetics? Describe the principles of segregation, dominance, and independent assortment. He is the “Father of Modern Genetics”. *See Principles Below* 54. Can an organism that is heterozygous for a trait ever express the recessive allele? (assume no codominance and no incomplete dominance) If an organism is heterozygous then it contains both the dominant and recessive forms of the gene. The dominant form will be expressed. 55. What events occur during the phases of meiosis? *See diagram below* 56. Contrast mitosis and meiosis. Meiosis: 4 haploid genetically different daughter cells, not a cycle; Mitosis: 2 diploid genetically identical daughter cells, a part of the cell cycle 57. Why must cells created by meiosis have half the number of chromosomes as body cells? This ensures that the number of chromosomes in the species is conserved. Labeled microscope diagram: Venn Diagram for Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells An example of Homeostasis: Mendelian Principles of Inheritance: Steps of Meiosis