Download the islamic world: past and present

THE ISLAMIC WORLD: PAST AND PRESENT
Dec. 1, 2004, n.p.
Copyright © 2004 Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.
Islam: Overview
By John L. Esposito, Ed.
With more than one billion followers, Islam is the second-largest religion in the world.
Muslims constitute a majority in 48 countries from North Africa to Southeast Asia and a
significant minority in many others. Although the Arab world is often considered to be
the heartland of Islam, it has spread to the traditionally Christian countries of Europe
and North America, as well as throughout Asia and Africa.
For information on Islam in specific countries or regions of the world, see the
following entries:
Albania
Algeria
Bangladesh
Bosnia
Brunei
Canada
Caribbean
Caucasus
Central Africa
Central Asia
China
East Africa
Egypt
Europe
Great Britain
Gulf States
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Jordan
Kashmir
Kosovo
Latin America
Lebanon
Libya
Malawi
Malaysia
Middle East
Morocco
Nigeria
North Africa
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Saudi Arabia
Somalia
South Asia
Southeast Asia
Southern Africa
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
United States
West Africa
Yemen
The Heart of the Message
The term islam comes from the Arabic root s-l-m, which means "submission" or
"peace." Because Muslims surrender themselves to the will of God, they are at peace
with themselves and with God. At the center and foundation of Islam is Allah (God, the
Merciful, the Compassionate), who is the supreme ruler--all-powerful, all-knowing--and
the creator and judge of the universe. Islam teaches that God revealed his will to
humankind through a series of messengers, known as prophets. Muhammad received
the last of these revelations, which were later collected and recorded in the Qur'an*,
Islam's sacred scripture.
Core Beliefs. The Qur'an states that God created two
similar types of creatures: human beings from clay and jinn, a
type of spirit, from fire. The scriptures provide few details about
jinn but suggest that they possess intelligence and
responsibility and sometimes make trouble for human beings.
People are the noblest of God's creatures and are therefore
Map of the Farthest
superior to all of nature. At the same time, however, the Qur'an
Reaches of Islam until
notes that humans are frail, rebellious, and filled with pride,
1700
which causes them to forget their limitations and dependence
on God. When human beings act in prideful ways, disobeying
In the 600s, Islam spread
from the Arabian Peninsula
God, they commit the most serious of sins.
The duty of humans, according to the Qur'an, is to obey and
serve God. Historically, Allah chose special messengers, or
prophets, to communicate his commands and prohibitions to a
particular community. At the end of time, the members of the
community would receive rewards or punishments based on
their adherence to these standards. Islam recognizes Adam
(the first man), and several prophets, including Abraham,
Noah, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims do not acknowledge Jesus
as the Son of God, and they reject the concept of God as three
persons--father, son, and Holy Spirit. The Qur'an asserts that
all the prophets anticipated the coming of Muhammad as the
final messenger who would confirm all that had been revealed
to them.
into Egypt and the Middle
East. In the 700s, it moved
west into North Africa and
east into Afghanistan. By
1700, a millennium after its
birth, Islam had expanded
widely throughout Asia,
Africa, and Europe. The
map shows the farthest
reaches of Islam from its
beginnings to about 1700.
However, by this time
Spain was no longer part of
the Islamic world.
Muhammad, a merchant and caravan leader, became Muhammad, the Prophet,
during the month of Ramadan in 610. On the Night of Power and Excellence, the angel
Gabriel brought to him the first of many divine revelations. Islamic tradition states that
he fell into a trance while receiving the message and that he knew that it had come from
God. The Qur'an, in fact, denies any earthly origins, noting that such a source would
make it susceptible to "manifold doubts and oscillations [opposing beliefs]."
Although Allah has demonstrated mercy to human beings by sending them prophets
to guide them, the Qur'an suggests that people tend to forget or reject these teachings.
The scripture states that Satan (Iblis) deliberately tries to tempt people to sin. Satan was
once a high-ranking jinn, but when God commanded the angels to honor Adam, he
refused to comply, unwilling to acknowledge the superior status of humans. His
disobedience angered God, who cast him out of heaven. While he awaits his
punishment, to be delivered at the end of time, Satan attempts to lead people astray.
n the biblical story of Adam and Eve, Satan takes the form of a serpent and persuades
them to eat the forbidden fruit of a certain tree in the Garden of Eden. Unlike the biblical
account, the Qur'an does not regard this act as the original sin (the Christian belief that
all humans are sinful as a result of Adam's fall). Instead, the Qur'an suggests that sinful
behavior results when human beings willfully abuse the freedom that Allah has given to
them. If a person commits a sin, feels remorse, and makes atonement for the evil deed,
God forgives the sin. Moreover, genuine repentance is enough to restore a Muslim to a
state of sinlessness.
Muslims believe that the world will end on the Last Day, and God will resurrect the
dead and judge each person according to his or her deeds. Those who are saved will
live forever in paradise, a place of physical and spiritual delights. Those who are
condemned will go to hell, a place of eternal fire.
The Qur'an does not provide a clear answer to the theological* question of free will
versus predestination. Some passages support the argument that human beings are
truly free to choose their own actions, while others indicate that an all-knowing God
predetermines all actions. Nevertheless, the scripture is clear about the absolute power
of God, without whose permission or creative act nothing occurs. It is also clear that
people are accountable for their actions, despite the fact that they are dependent on
God for the ability and power to act.
The Paths of Islam. Those who embrace Islam become members of a worldwide
religious community, or ummah. Because Islam emphasizes practice more than belief,
law rather than theology is the principal source of instruction for Muslims. Islamic law
(shari'ah) developed over a period of several hundred years following the death of the
Prophet Muhammad. Shari'ah dictates a Muslim's duties to God and to society,
incorporating regulations governing prayer and fasting as well as rules on family life,
crime and punishment, and international politics. In general, the four recognized
sources of law are the Qur'an, sunnah*, rules derived from the Qur'an and sunnah by
analogy (qiyas), and consensus of the scholars (ijma).
The aqidah, or five articles of Islamic faith, are belief in the oneness of God,
angels, prophets, revealed books, and the afterlife. All Muslims are required to practice
the five Pillars of Islam: the profession of faith, which acknowledges that "There is no
god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger"; prayer five times each day and
community prayer in the mosque* on Fridays; zakat, setting aside a portion of one's
wealth for the poor; fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and pilgrimage to the
holy city of Mecca for every Muslim who is able, physically and financially, at least once
in a lifetime. Some scholars consider jihad, or striving to accomplish God's will, to be a
sixth pillar.
As Islamic law developed during the 700s and 800s, some Muslims began to shift
their focus from the external obligations of the faith to their inner spiritual life. The
movement known as Sufism* emerged. It called on Muslims to detach themselves from
the distractions of this world to concentrate on holiness and complete devotion to God.
By the 1100s, the followers of Sufism, attracted to its ritual practices, had created a vast
network of orders, or brotherhoods.
Social Interactions. Islam emphasizes the ideals of community, equality, and social
justice. The Qur'an describes the ummah as "the best community evolved for mankind,
enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong" so that "there is no mischief and
corruption" on earth. Islam teaches that all people are "equal children of Adam,"
rejecting the concept of privilege based on social class or race. Consequently,
prosperous Muslims must strive to help the poor. Hoarding wealth and ignoring the
needs of the poor places a prosperous Muslim at risk of severe punishment in the
hereafter.
Islamic tradition emphasizes order, stability, and harmony in society. It expects
individuals to dress and behave modestly and to treat their bodies with dignity. This
means that Muslims should eat only lawful foods (halal) and should avoid the use of
alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs. Behaviors that threaten the social order--such as
theft, drug abuse, adultery, and homosexual relationships--receive harsh punishments.
The family is the foundation of Islamic society. It shapes a person's identity,
determining social class, political affiliations, and cultural practices. Islam encourages
Muslims to marry and produce children. In a traditional Muslim family, the father expects
obedience from his wife and children. In turn, he must support and protect his family.
Irreconcilable Differences. After the Prophet's death in 632, his followers disagreed
about who should succeed him. One group believed that Muhammad died without
designating a successor, and therefore, the elders of the community should select the
next leader of the community. The other group believed that the Prophet had named his
son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the imam* of the Muslim community. Divinely appointed
and protected from sin, the imam was considered infallible, and therefore, had supreme
authority in all religious and political matters. This dispute eventually led to the division
of Muslims into two major groups--Sunni and Shi'i. Today Sunnis represent about
85 percent of the world's Muslims, and Shi'is constitute about 15 percent.
Conquest and Expansion. With the growth of Islam, Muslims turned their attention to
economic and political gain in lands beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Much of the Middle
East was under the control of the Byzantine Empire. Muslim armies defeated the
Byzantines and gained control of Jerusalem in 638. By 641 they had gained control of
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt and had defeated the Persian Empire as well. Soon after,
they swept across North Africa. The Muslims viewed their astonishing military success
as a confirmation of the Qur'anic message that a society governed by God's laws would
thrive.
As Muslim invaders reached new territories, they established Islamic rule in the
conquered regions. Many conquered people voluntarily converted to Islam and gained
full citizenship in the empire. In accordance with Islamic law, Muslim leaders extended
legal protections to Jews and Christians living under their rule. Muslims considered
these groups to be People of the Book, meaning that they were guided by scripture,
sacred writings that contained revelations from God. As long as they obeyed the local
Islamic ruler, they were permitted to practice their faith and to follow their religious
leaders and law in personal matters. Muslim rulers did, however, require their nonMuslim subjects to pay special taxes. In areas where people worshipped pagan gods,
especially in North Africa, Muslims forced the inhabitants to convert to Islam under
threat of death. At times, the invaders fought against groups that rejected or resisted
Muslim rule. Islam also spread through migration and settlement, as Muslims
established new towns and cities throughout the empire. In addition, merchants,
traders, and missionaries* brought Islam to new areas.
Rise and Fall of an Empire. Within a century after the Prophet's death, the sphere
of Muslim influence extended from the Arabian Peninsula to Spain, Central Asia, and
the Indian subcontinent. Under the leadership of two caliphates*, the Umayyad (661 750) in Damascus (Syria), and theAbbasid (750 - 1258) in Baghdad (Iraq), the Muslims
consolidated their power. Islam became a mighty political force and Islamic civilization
developed and flourished.
Muslim rulers established courts and instituted systems of government. They
encouraged learning and supported the arts. They built magnificent cities that included
palaces, mosques, aqueducts, libraries, schools, public baths, and gardens. Muslim
physicians advanced the study and practice of medicine, and scholars wrote books on
history, philosophy, and mathematics. At a time when many Europeans lived in
relatively primitive conditions, Muslims enjoyed the luxuries of an advanced civilization.
In 1258 Mongols from the East destroyed the Abbasid caliphate. For the next 500
years, the Islamic world consisted of several local states or sultanates*. Among the
most powerful of these were the Ottomans (which included Turkey, much of the Arab
world, and Eastern Europe), the Safavids (in Persia), and the Mughals (on the Indian
subcontinent).
During the late 1700s and 1800s, European nations increased their power and
influence in the Muslim world, establishing colonies in the Middle East, Africa, and India.
When the Ottoman Empire collapsed after World War I ended in 1918, Great Britain
and France divided most of the land between them, to be governed as protectorates*.
Resurgence. Muslims struggled with the impact of European imperialism* and the
intellectual and moral challenges of a changing world. During the 1800s, a series of
Islamic revivalist movements emerged. These various movements, including the
Wahhabi in Arabia and the Mahdi in Sudan, shared a common concern about the
decline of Muslim societies. They advocated a return to the teachings of the Qur'an and
the sunnah, and they drew support from those who sought to establish new Islamic
states.
Later, modernist movements attempted to bridge the gap between the growing
influence of the West and traditional Islam. Men such as Jamal al-Dinal-Afghani and
Muhammad Abduh in the Middle East and Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Iqbal in
South Asia sought to restore the pride, identity, and strength of the Islamic community.
They emphasized that Islam is compatible with reason, science, and technology but
also argued for the need to reinterpret Islam in light of modern issues and concerns.
This modernist movement appealed mainly to educated people. The majority were
attracted to more traditional organizations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood. The
brotherhood criticized Islamic modernists for attempting to emulate Western ideals and
declared that Islam offers an alternative path. These reformers sought to implement an
Islamic system of government through social and political action.
During the 1950s and 1960s, most of the Muslim world gained independence. Many
of the new states, including Lebanon, Syria, Sudan, Jordan, Iraq, and Pakistan, were
created by the colonial powers and drawn with artificial or arbitrary boundaries.
European governments even appointed their rulers. As a result, issues of political
legitimacy and national identity added to the problems of nation building.
Islam reemerged as a powerful global force in Muslim politics during the 1970s and
1980s. The belief that existing political, economic, and social systems had failed led
many Muslims to embrace religious revivalism. Authoritarian regimes--led by kings,
military officers, or former military officers--ruled most Islamic nations. These autocrats*
banned or restricted political parties and manipulated elections or canceled them
entirely. Economically, urban areas suffered from a growing tide of poverty and
illiteracy. Some Muslims charged that the westernization of Muslim societies had
contributed to the breakdown of the traditional family and the increase in spiritual
complacency.
At the heart of revivalism is the belief that the Muslim world is in a state of decline
because Muslims have departed from the straight path of Islam. The remedy is a return
to Islam in personal and public life that will ensure the restoration of Muslim identity,
values, and power. Although revivalists condemn the westernization and secularization
of society, they consider science and technology as compatible with Islam.
Today, Islamic revivalism is a widespread religious and social movement, present in
virtually every Muslim country. Islamic organizations work in the fields of social services
(hospitals, clinics, legal aid societies), economics (Islamic banks, investment firms),
education (schools, childcare centers), and in religious publishing and broadcasting.
The history of the Islamic community has spanned more than 14 centuries. Islam
continues to be a vibrant and dynamic religious tradition, expanding geographically and
facing new challenges. Muslims have many different perspectives on such matters as
the nature of the state, Islamic law, and the status of women and minorities in the
Muslim community. As they grapple with these issues, Muslims demonstrate the unity,
diversity, and endurance of Islam.