Download Photosynthesis and respiration Photosynthesis is the conversion of

I.
Photosynthesis and respiration
A.
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. The raw materials are carbon dioxide and water; the energy
source is sunlight; and the end-products are oxygen and (energy rich) carbohydrates, for example sucrose, glucose and starch. This process is arguably
the most important biochemical pathway, since nearly all life depends on it. It is a complex process occurring in higher plants, phytoplankton, algae, as
well as bacteria such as cyanobacteria. Photosynthetic organisms are also referred to as photoautotrophs
The word comes from the Greek photo-, "light", and synthesis, "putting together".
1.
2.
Light reaction
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1:photosynthesis
B.
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II.
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p
iration, The release of energy from glucose or other organic substances inside living cells. During respiration, sugar/starch, and oxygen is turned into
carbon dioxide, water and energy. Every cell needs to respire in order to produce the energy it needs. Cellular respiration is often used to describe this
phenomenon.
Cellular respiration, the process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose are converted into energy usable for life
processes
Anaerobic respiration, a process that allows respiration without use of oxygen; can only happen for a limited amount of time in humans
Plant respiration, the enzymatic oxidation of substrates in plants, leading to the release of carbon dioxide
Parts of a Cell
A. Animal Cell
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to
pass into the cell and blocking others.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating
tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to
opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the dense center of the centrosome.
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.
Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and
is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates
into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes. This is where the
digestion of cell nutrients takes place.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of
projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by
controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough
appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi
body, or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER
transports materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off
from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, lysosomes, and membranes.
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vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is on its
way out of the cell.
B.
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Plant Cell
amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants like tubers and fruits.
ATP - ATP is short for adenosine triphosphate; it is a high-energy molecule used for energy storage by organisms. In plant cells, ATP is
produced in the cristae of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable,
allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most of its support and structure. The
cell wall also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of the plant.
centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating
tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to
opposite sides of the dividing cell.
chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this
process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium based and is usually green.
chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into
chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts.
christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae
are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is generated).
cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.
Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is
located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.
granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum.
mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of
projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.
nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.
nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by
controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
photosynthesis - a process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and
water. Chlorophyll or closely-related pigments (substances that color the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.
ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.
rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough
appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body,
or inserted into the cell membrane).
smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in
the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER
transport materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off
from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and membranes
stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana.
thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are made up of
stacks of thylakoid disks; a stack of thylakoid disks is called a granum. Photosynthesis (the production of ATP molecules from sunlight) takes
place on thylakoid disks.
vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up much
of the cell. It helps maintain the shape of the cell.
III.
Organ Systems
A. EXCRETORY SYSTEM or URINARY SYSTEM
Main organ: kidneys >found at the lower back of the body (lumbar cavity)
1.
REGIONS:
Nephrons- filtering unit of the kidneys
Excretion- removing products from the body; waste products
Urea- produced after protein metabolism
Uric acid- causes gout and arthtritis
Ureter- moves the urine to the bladder by peristalsis
Secretion- cell product
Egestion- undigested/ insoluble materials (never been a part of any activity)
Urethra- bladder to external opening
ADH- antidiuretic hormone
2.
Functions:
Regulates the amount of insoluble materials in our body
B.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM or BODY REGULATING SYSTEM
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
Composed of ductless glands that secrete products called hormones into the bloodstream
Role:
1. Coordinates various body functions.
2. Controls metabolism.
3. Regulates mood, growth, and sexual development.
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
Terminologies:
– organs that produces a secretion or substance made inside a cell and released from the cell
– chemical messengers that regulate the activities of all body processes
– have receptors for a particular hormone, and thus, they will only respond to the hormone

The Glands and their Hormones
A. Thyroid Gland
1. Brownish-red, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of the neck
2. Hormones
a. Thyroxine – stimulates and maintains metabolic activities
b. Calcitonin – inhibits the release of calcium from bones
B. Parathyroid Glands
1. 4 small, oval bodies at the side of the thyroid
2. Hormone: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
- stimulates the release of calcium from bones
C. Adrenals
1. 2 triangular glands, one atop each kidney
2. Layers
a. Adrenal Cortex
- Aldosterone – affects water and salt balance by the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of pottasium
- Cortisol, other corticosteroids – affect carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism
b. Adrenal Medulla
- Adrenaline – increases blood sugar level; dilates specific blood vessels; increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood
supply to muscles
- Noradrenaline – decreases blood sugar level; constricts specific blood vessels; decreases heart rate, blood pressure,
and blood supply to muscles
D. Gonads
1. Secretes hormones that regulate sexual development and changes during puberty
2. Gland
a. Testes
– Supports sperm development, develops and maintains male sex characteristics
b. Ovaries
-shaped glands in the pelvis
- Estrogen – Develops and maintains female sex characteristics, initiates buildup of uterine wall
- Progesterone – promotes continued growth of uterine lining
E. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhan)
1. Long, tapered gland across and behind the stomach
2. composed of alpha and beta cells
3. Hormones
a. Insulin (beta cells)
b. Glucagon (alpha cells)
F. Pituitary Gland
1. Pea-sized gland just below the hypothalamus
2. Lobes
a. Posterior Pituitary (innermost)
– controls water excretion
b. Anterior Pituitary (outermost)
-stimulating hormone (FSH) – stimulates follicle maturation in females and sperm production in males
– stimulates ovulation and corpus luteum formation in females and androgen secretion in males
-stimulating hormone (TSH)– stimulates and maintains metabolic activities
– stimulates adrenal cortex
– stimulates bone growth, inhibits glucose oxidation, promotes fatty acid breakdown
– stimulates milk production
c. Middle (self-explanatory)
-stimulating hormone (MSH)– stimulates the production of melanocytes
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G. Pineal
1. Small, cone-shaped gland in the middle of the brain
2. Hormone: Melatonin – promotes the development of the ovaries ant the testes
H. Hypothalamus
1. A cluster of brain cells at the base of the brain
2. Links the endocrine and nervous system
3. Hormone: Oxytocin – stimulates urine contraction, milk release
4. Responsible for emotions, hunger, thirst, and body temperature
I. Thymus
1. Found in the chest, above and in front of the heart
2. Large at newborn, but shrinks as one ages
3. Hormone: Thymosin – stimulates the development of the lymphatic tissues of the lymphatic system
Disease
Malfunctioned Gland
Symptoms
Cause
Gigantism
Pituitary
Abnormal tallness
Too much growth
hormone secreted
(during childhood)
Dwarfism
Pituitary
Abnormal shortness
Too little growth
hormone secreted
Acromegaly
Pituitary
Jaw, feet and hands
increase in size
Too much growth
hormone secreted
(during adulthood)
Goiter
Thyroid
Inflammation of
thyroid gland
Too little iodine intake
Hypotyroidism
Thyroid
Failure to attain
normal physical
growth and mental
development
Too little thyroxine
secreted
Hyperthyroidism
Thyroid
Nervousness,
insomnia, irritability
Too much thyroxine
secreted
Cretinism
Thyroid
Dwarfism and mental
deficiency
Hypothyroidism was
not treated
Diabetes
Islets of Langerhan
-------------------
-------------------
Islets of Langerhan
Too much sugar in
blood
Too little insulin and
too much glucagon
secreted
Islets of Langerhan
Too little sugar in
blood
Too much insulin and
too little glucagons
Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
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secreted
Endocrine glands- ductless
Exocrine glands- with ducts
C.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions:
Receives information about your environment and other parts of your body
It interprets this information
It makes your body respond or react to this information
CNS – brain; spinal cord
PNS- all nerves
ANS-parasympathetic; sympathetic
The BRAIN
Optic
Olfactory
Gustatory
auditory
MAIN PARTS
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
3 DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN
Forebrain or cerebrum (cerebral cortex)- made up of numerous convolutions/ depressions/ wrinkles
- Has 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Mid brain- thalamus and hypothalamus; reflex coordination
- thalamus- screens impulses
- gate keeper of the brain
- hypothalamus- carbohydrate metabolism
Hind brain- consists of: pons varoli, cerebellum (little brain), medulla oblongata
Pons varoli- “bridge” of transverse nerve tracts from cerebrum to both sides of cerebellum
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Cerebellum- coordination and balace
Medulla oblongata- respiration, cardiovascular function and gastric reaction
TERMS
Nerve cells or neurons – microscopic dendrites and axons
- Found all over the body
- Transmit impulses around the body
- Impulses travels through dendrites
Synapse- space between 2 neurons
Stimuli- light, heat, smell, radiation receptors
Ganglia- bundles of nerve fibers
Meninges- protect the spinal cord and brain
Cerebro-spinal fluid(CSF)- found in the brain
Gray matter- nerves in the spinal cord; inner portion
White matter- made of myelinated axon; outer portion
Motor neurons- connected to muscles; locomotion
Reflex- sensory receptor cells react to stimuli; autonomic nervous system; regulate inner parts of the body
Pineal gland- rhythmic activities (e.g., sleeping, hunger)
Learning- behavior acquired through experience
Myelin sheath- covers the axon;
-made up of fat cells
Electroencepahologram (EEG) records brain acivities
Dendrites(towards cell body), axons(carries away cell body) – parts of nerves
Gray matter- non- myelinated axons
Meningitis- inflammation of meninges
Hydrocephalous- inflammation of nerves
“jarring of the brain”- shaking of the brain
Concussion- brain bruise
Lobotomy- cutting of associative fibers
Schizophrenia- split personality
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BRAIN SECTIONS
Medulla oblongata- brain stem; involuntary activities
Cerebellum- consciousness; involuntary
Cerebrum- largest part; voluntary
Cerebral cortex- grayish portion
White matter-inside portion of the brain; folded and wrinkled; myelinated sheets of axons
Thalamus- receivers large amounts of stimuli
Hypothalamus- respond to stimuli; coordinates contraction and relaxation; controls blood sugar and emotions
Gray mater- outside portion of the brain; folded and wrinkled
Sections/ layers of meninges: piameter, paracttodameter, durameter
NERVES
Brain- 12 pairs
Cervical- 8 pairs
Thoracic- 12 pairs
Lumbar- 5 pairs
Sacral- 6 pairs
Cocygeal- 1 pair
D.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
KINDS
Sexual
Pollination (plants)
Coitus (sexual intercourse; human)
Copulation/ cross fertilization (earth worms)
Conjugation (micronucleus; algae)
Asexual
Fission
Regeneration (e.g., starfish)
Budding- outgrowths
Vegetative propagation- leaves/root/stem cutting, marcotting
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Fragmentation
Sporulation/ spore formation (e.g., mushroom)
A.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Vulva- external female genetalia
Hymen- covers the vaginal canal
Hymenectomy
Pubic hair- protects the inner part
Mons pubis- area where most of p.h. are concentrated
Labia majora; labia minora- protects the inner portion
Clitoris- rich with nerves
Internal part
Vaginal canal- entrance of sperm cell, exit of monthly period and child in normal delivery
Cervix- support the uterus; “neck of uterus”; cartilage; determiner of virginity
Ovaries- main organ; produce egg cell; gland (secrete estrogen, that make certain changes
Uterus (womb)- where implantation of embryo happens; umbilical cord with 2 arteries
Endometrium- lining membrane of the uterus where embryo is attached
Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm- 3 body layers where different organs develop
Fallopian tube/ oviduct- where sperm cell and egg cell meets
Fimbrae- finger-like projections in the oviduct
Corpus luteum- part that remains in the ovary
Ectopic pregnancy- pregnancy in the fallopian tube or near the cervix
B.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Penis
Erectile muscle tissue- blood vessels
Variocele- penis has bulging blood vessels (disease)
Glans- tip
Shaft- body
Foreskin/ prepuse
Smegma- waste materials in the foreskin
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in the body)
Mons pubis- where pubic hair are concentrated
Urethra- tube for urine and sperm cell (with seminal fluid)
Scrotum- pouch containing testis
Seminiforous tubules- contains sperm cells
Epididymis- contains the Seminiforous tubules
Vas deferens- tube where sperm cells passes through to reach the glands
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Cowper’s gland
Seminal fluid- added to the sperm cell to form the tail
CONTRACEPTIVES- anything that prevents pregnancy, spread of disease causing organism’s ovulation
CLASSIFICATIONS
Natural
Vasectomy (male)- cutting of vas deferens
Tubal ligation (female)- cutting of fallopian tube
Abstinence (m)
Withdrawal(m)
Rhythm/ calendar method (f)
Artificial
Condoms
Spermicide (f)
Foam/ sponge
IUD (intrauterine device)
Copper T
Jellies
Injectibles
Pills (oral contraceptives)- prevents ovulation
CAUSES OF REPRODUCTIVE DISEASES/ DISORDERS
Bacteria
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Virus
Multiple sexual intercourse
Smoking
Radiation/ high temperature
Alcoholic beverages
Use of artificial steroids
Environmental
Protists
Traumatic experiences/ accidents
Being unhygienic
Use of sex toys
DISEASES / DISORDERS/ OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Gonorhea- cause by gonococcus bacteria
Syphilis- spirochetes bacteria
Clamydia
Sterility- too much intake of antibiotics
Impotence- traumatic experience
Urethritis
Trichomonas vaginalis- pubic louse
Filariasis- filarin worm
AIDS- HIV
IV.
GENETICS
Terms
Genetics- study of heredity
Heredity- passing of traits
Allele- single trait
Multiple allele- multiple traits
Heterozygous allele- hybrid (different traits passed)
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Homozygous- same traits passed
Phenotype- physical appearance
Genotype- genetic combination
Condominance- two dominant are fully expressed in the heterozygote
Dominant trait- seen trait
Recessive trait- unseen trait
Sex chromosome- I pair from the 46 pairs of chromosomes; either x or y
Autosomes- 45 pairs from our 46 pairs; responsible for different traits except sexes
Species- group of organisms showing similarities and differences but need to mate/ breed with its own kind
Specie characteristics- traits found in all members of a given type of specie
Individual characteristics- traits found in few members of given specie.
Mutation- sudden or permanent change in the genetic make- up of an organism
Laws
Law of dominance and recessiveness- states that one factor (gene) in a pair may mask the expression of the other.
Law of incomplete dominance- blending of traits
Concept of unit character- within the pear are factors (later to be called genes) which control the expression of hereditary traits and this factors occur
in pairs
Law of segregation- a pair of factors (genes) is segregated or separated during the formation of gametes
Law of independent assortment- inheritance of single trait
Significance
To produce an organism that are unique in characteristic
To determine the original characteristics
To produce better quality of organism
To determine the causes of negative traits among organisms
To produce more organisms of positive traits; either x or y
Sex chromosomes
Sex-linked traits- traits attached to sex chromosomes (e.g., colorblindness = xyc)
Sex-limited traits- traits present only in one sex and absent on the other. (e.g., ovary development)
Sex- influenced- traits that turned dominant on one sex and recessive on the other; afftected by certain factors (e.g., baldness (male)
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Breeding- combining organisms that are the same or very different
Inbreeding or line breeding
Out breeding or out crossing
V. Taxonomy
A.
Invertebrates
1.
Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)
Polychaeta (marine worms)


a.k.a. bristle worms
with fleshy protrusions called parapodia. These are used for burrowing, swimming, breathing, and the creation of a
feeding current
 with well-developed heads
Oligochatea (earthworms, etc)
 No bristles
 Hermaphrodites
 Have a spacious body cavity called coelom which serves as a hydroskeleton. This is used for moving and burrowing
Hirudinae (leeches)
2.


Arthropoda
All are blood suckers but 90% of leeches do not bite.
Hermaphrodites
Jointed appendages organism
Biggest group of invertebrates
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Covered with exoskeleton (chitin)
Can molt
With segmented abdomen
Can live anywhere
With either 2 or 3 body divisions (abdomen-cephalothorax; head-thorax-abdomen)
Jointed legs
Dorsal heart
Ventral nervous system
CLASSES
Crustacean
2 body regions
2 pairs of antennae
5 or more pairs of legs
May be aquatic or terrestrial
Arachnida
2 body regions
8 legs
No antennae
Some have fangs
Insecta
3 body regions
Six legs attached to the thorax
May have wings
Two antennae
Uses either gills or book lungs for respiration
Open circulatory system
Hemolymph- interspatial fluid; makes the body moist and wet; serves as the insect’s blood.
Diplopoda
MILLIPEDES!!
2 pairs of legs per segment
1 pair of antennae
Well defined head
Usually cylindrical
Chilopoda
CENTIPEDES!!
Well defined heads
1st pair of legs are modified for environment
Flattened from top to bottom
1 pair of legs per segment
1 pair of antennae
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3.
Cnidarians or Coelenterates
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Radially symmetrical
Some are covered with limestones
No anus
2 body layers
A diverse group of aquatic animals armed with microscopic stinging creatures
Have a sack-like body with a single mouth opening
Lack internal organs
Endoderm cells digest food within the central body cavity
Discharge waste natter through the mouth opening
TERMS
o
Polyp
o
Ephyra- young jellyfish
o
Autotomy- self-cutting (asexual)
o
Schypistoma- layers in the polyp stage
o
Medusa (body) resembles a saucer or umbrella
o
Metagenesis or alteration of generation – both sexual and asexual life cycle
o
Nematocytes- also called the cridoblasts; microscopic stinging creatures
o
Planula- swimming larvae of cnidarians
CLASSES
Hydrozoa
Scyphozoan
Cubozoa
Anthozoa
4. Echinodermata
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Scavengers of the sea
Can regenerate
Radial body symmetry
Some are poisonous
Do not have sense organs
No nervous and excretory systems
Tube feet with suction disks
Reproduce sexually (hermaphrodite; external fertilization)
With water vascular system
Spiny skeleton/ skin
Some are sessile
CLASSES
o
Asteroidean (starfish)
o
Crinoidea (sand dollar)
o
Ophiuroidea (sea urchin; brittle star)
o
Holothmoidea (sea cucumber)
o
Echinoidea (feather stars [sessile])
5. MOLLUSCA
CLASSIFICATION:
Gastropoda- univalves; belly or stomach footed
Pelecypoda- bivalves; hatchet-footed
Cephalopoda- no shells; head-footed
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
o
Majority lives in aquatic environment
o
Bilateral symmetry
o
Principal body cavity is blood filled hemocoel
o
Muscular foot for locomotion
o
Complete digestive tract
o
Radula – feeding structure
o
Cephalopoda has a chitinous beak
6. Nematoda
Mostly parasitic
Degenerative
Reproduce sexually
Uses blood to explore the host’s body
Transparent body parts
Favor to stay in our small intestine
No senses
With simple nervous system
Hemolymph
No locomotory organ
No body segments
Uses skin for respiration and excretion
7. Platyhelminthes
CLASSES
Turbellaria (planaria)
Cestoda (tapeworm)
Trematoda (flukes)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
8.
B.
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Proglottids- body segments
Fragmentation
Scolex- also known as its head is made up of hooks and suckers
Planaria is the only free linging platyhelminthes
Body wall is resistant to the host’s digestive juices
Diffusion- nutrients are easily passed
Does not have an anal opening; no endocrine system
Simple immune system and nervous system
Osmosis- releases certain amount of fluid
3-layered muscles; some are ciliated for locomotion [gliding]
Porifera
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Multicellular
With tissues but no organs
Attached to rocks, shells and corals
Irregular shaped
Have internal water systems; no circulatory, respiratory and excretory systems
Calcareous crystals and silicon spicules
Marine organisms
Reproduce sexually or asexually
Regenerates lost body parts
Natural filter of water in the sea
CELLS
Choanocyte
Porocyte
Pinacocyte
Myocyte
Archeocyte
Sclerocyte
Spongocyte
Collencytes
CLASSES
o
Calcarea
o
Hexactenellida
o
Sponging
o
Aclerospongae
TERMS
o
Osculum- excurrent
o
Pores- incurrent
o
“porus” – pores “ferre”- bear
o
No tissue- “protozoa”
o
Intertidal zone- shore
Vertebrates
1. Class Mammalia
Mamma [greek word] - “nourished by their mother using mammary gland”
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sweat glands
Mammary gland
Covered with hair
3 middle ear bones
Neocortex region of the brain
2 pairs of limbs
3 body divisions
Closed circulatory system
Warm- blooded
Complete senses
Bilateral symmetry
Viviparous
Terrestrial
Omnivores
Uses lungs for breathing
Four-chambered hear
SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Monotreme – egg-laying mammals

Marsupials – pouched mammals

Placental – possesses a placenta [special structure that nourishes the unborn young]
ORDERS

Monotremata

Marsupalia

Tubulidentata

Tubulidentata or edentata

Hyracoidean

Rodentia

Primates

Perissodactyla
2.
3.

Chlroptera

Eulopotyphyla
Aves
Bipedal
Warm-blooded
Lay eggs
Has beak with no teeth
High metabolic rate and 4 chambered heart
Light weight but strong skeletal system
Forelimbs (modified for flying)
Unique digestive and respiratory system adopted for flying
With gizzard for digestion and crop for food storage and streamline or boat-shaped bodies
With 3 eyelids [third eyelid is called nictitating membrane]
Archaeopteryx-link between aves and reptiles
Incubates their young until they can live independently
Can easily convert food to energy
With complete systems and senses
Some male birds have crowns
With waterproof, overlapping feathers and wings
Orders under Class Amphibia:
Anura (frogs& toads)
Frogs
a. Long hind legs
b. A short body
c. Webbed digits
d. Protruding eyes
e. No tail except during tadpole stage
f.
Most have a “double life”
g. Moves easily on land by jumping or climbing
h. Lay non-amniotic eggs (no shell)
i.
Adults are carnivorous
j.
With varying colors
Toad
k. Used to dry environments
l.
Usually the ones who perform aestivation
m. With dry, leathery and brownish skin
n. All secrete poison from their parotid glands
o. DOES NOT CAUSE WARTS IN ANY WAY!!!
Caudata/Urodela (salamanders & newts)
Salamander
p. slender bodies
q. short legs
r.
long tail
s. moist skin
t.
reliant on habitats in or near water or under some protection on moist ground
u. some are aquatic throughout life, some are entirely terrestrial as adults, and some also lead a “double life”
v. capable of regenerating lost limbs
Newts
w. slender bodies
x. short legs
y. long tail
z. moist skin
aa. have true teeth
bb. lay eggs that are attached to aquatic plants
cc. releases poison from the skin but the organism must be ingested (by a predator, for instance) in order for the poison to
take effect.
dd. Either aquatic or semi-aquatic (double-life)
Gymnophiona/Apoda (caecilians)
ee.
ff.
gg.
hh.
4.
Resemble earthworms or snakes
Most live their lives underground
All are not blind, but skin covers its eyes
A recent discovery shows that they secrete poisons that are different from other poisons of other amphibians. This is used
to avoid predation
Fishes
Hard exoskeleton
Complete senses
Lateral lines for detecting sounds
Covered with scales that are overlapping
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C.
V.
No eyelids
Uses gills for breathing with operculum
Closed circulatory system
Pyloric caeca- digests food
SCALES: placoid, cosmoid, ganoid, bichirs, cycloid, ctenoid
Kingdom Protista
1. General Characteristics
First organisms to be discovered with locomotory organs [flagella, cilia, pseudopods]
Mostly unicellular
Some are with coloring pigments
Mostly heterotrophic
Some are parasitic
Vary in shape
With several specialized organelles
Phagocytosis [engulfing or swallowing]
May reproduce sexually [conjugation] or asexually [fission]
2. Phylum Sarcodina (amoeba)
Pseudopods
No definite shape or assymetrical
No color
With cell membrane that protrude
With two body layers namely: ectoderm and endoderm
Reproduce asexually by fission
Eukaryotic
Endoparasite
3. Phylum Ciliophora or Ciliata (paramecium)
Most number of organelles
With cilia as their locomotory organ
Pellicle gives them a definite shape
Fresh-water dweller
May reproduce sexually [conjugation] or asexually [fission]
SPECIAL ORGANELLES
Trichocyst- used for catching food
Gullet- serves as the esophagus
Food vacuole- serves as the stomach
Anal pore and contractile vacuole- releases undigested food
Oral groove- looks like the insole of the foot; with its own cilia that keeps the organism rotating. This rotation
keeps the organism away from stimuli and helps in findings ways to continue moving.
Micronucleus- this is used for reproduction. This lets the organism rejuvenate
4. Phylum Mastigophora/Flagellates/ Zoomastigna/ Euglenophyta (euglena)
Can be considered as both plant-like and animal-like protest
Autotrophic
Equipped with flagella
With pellicle that gives them definite shape
Can move in 2 ways: by euglenoid; by propelling their flagella
Needs sunlight
Reproduce sexually and asexually
With chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis
With contractile vacuole that discharges waste
With eyespod that is sensitive to sunlight used for photosynthesis
Reproduce asexually by binary fission
5. Sporozoa
Microbiology
A. Bacteriology
FACTS
Louis Pasteur used cheese to discover bacteria. He also discovered anthrax [a virus]
Yeast is a kind of bacteria needed in bread making
PASTEURIZATION- boiling or sterilization (aerobic)
FERMENTATION- (anaerobic)
THERMOPHILIC BACTERIA- can survive in hot temperature and is beneficial
BIFIDUS- intestinal bacteria
Facultative anaerobe- can survive with small amount of oxygen
CHARACTERISTICS
Airborne; mostly aerobic
Can survive in any environment and temperature
Different shapes
Mostly beneficial; not all are pathogenic
Can serve as a decomposer
Does not require a host to live
Prokaryotic
Unicellular
Can be cultured
Most of them have cell walls; for those who doesn’t have cell wall, they have a mycoplasma
Sexual reproduction: conjugation
Few have locomotory organs[flagella]
TYPES OF BACTERIA
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1.
2.
3.
B.
Pathogenic- disease causing
Non-pathogenic- beneficial
According to shape:
Coccus
Bacillus
Spirillus
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES REQUIRING BACTERIA
Vinegar (Acetobacter)
Silage (lactobacilli)
Sauerkraut(coleslaw)
Retting of flax (fibers)
Milk industries
Tobacco industries
Clostridiums
Bacterias are needed in enhancing flavors
PROCESS THAT CAN SLOW DOWN FOOD SPOILAGE
Canning
Salt curing
Quick freezing
Refrigeration
Chemical preservation
Radiation
Dehydration
FACTORS NEEDED FOR BACTERIAL GROWTH
Moisture
Darkness
Enough food
Suitable temperature
Enough oxygen [for aerobic bacteria]
Host [if pathogenic]
Virology
FACTS
Dr. Edward Jenner – father of vaccination [small pox]
Dimitri Iwanowski- tobacco mosaic virus; unglazed porcelain
Wendell Stanley- crystallized extract from the infected tobacco leaf
Viruses were called poisons or toxins before
Phage is the new term for virus
Martinus Beijerinck- gave the name “virus”
CHARACTERISTICS
May contain either an RNA or a DNA [placed in a capsid or viral coat made up of bits of protein called capsmere; may also
have an envelope]
Needs a host
Virion- individual viruses or viral particles
RNA viruses are more dangerous
No shape, no nucleus, no any cell organelles
Reproduce by replication
CLASSIFICATION
1. According to host cell
Animal/human virus
Plant virus
Bacteriophage
2. According to RNA/DNA
Temperate- DNA
Virulent- RNA
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