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MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM 1500 A.D Complementary Course of I Semester BA Political Science and BA English CUCBCSS (2014 Admission Onwards) UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION Calicut university PO, Thenjipalam, Malappuram-673635 942 School of Distance Education UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION STUDY MATERIAL Complementary Course of I Semester BA Political Science and BA English MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM 1500 A.D Prepared by : 1. Rejeesh V.M.,Koyilandy (Module I & II) 2. Ajmal Mueen MA Asst. Professor and HoD of history MAMO College, Mukkam (Module III) Scrutinized by: Ashraf Koyilothan Kandiyil Chairman, Board of Studies- - History (UG) Govt. College Mokeri © Reserved Modern World History Page 2 School of Distance Education Syllabus MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500 HIS1C02 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION-FROM 1500 A.D MODULE I:Transition from Medieval to Modern Decline of Feudalism –growth of trade and Towns –development of Science and Technolology -emergence of National consciousness. Renaissance –causes-Humanism-features-Influence on science, Literature, art, Architecture. Reformation-Lutheranism-Anglicanism-Counter-reformation-Geographical explorations-major explorations –Impact on world politics, economy and culture. MODULE II-Developments in Political and Economy Growth of Nation states- Development of Absolute monarchies- Divine right theory of kingship-Louis XIV-European trading Companies in the east and AmericasMercantilism-commercial Revolution. MODULE III: Dawn of Rationalism and Democracy The English Revolution of 1688- The Bill of rights-The Enlightenment movementFrancis Bacon- Locke- The American Revolution- Declaration of Independence. Books for Reading: 1.Michael Beard- A history of Capitalism. 2.Wallbank and Taylor- Civilization Past and Present 3.C D M Ketelby-A history of Modern Times 4.Wallerstain Emmanuel- The Modern World System 5.Mark Ferrow- Colonialism:A world History 6.E J Hobsbaum-The Age of Capitalism 7.E J Hobsbaum –Nation and Nationalism Since 1780. 8.E.J.Hobsbaum-Age of Revolution 9.H.A.L.Fisher-History of Modern Europe 10.David Thomson-World History. Modern World History Page 3 School of Distance Education MODULE I TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN II DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND ECONOMY III DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY Modern World History PAGE NO. 5 29 38 Page 4 School of Distance Education Module I TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERN Historians have divided the history of mankind into three periods the Ancient, the Medieval and the Modern. The year 476 AD in which the last West Roman Emperor was deposed, is taken to mark the end of the ancient period and beginning of the middle ages. The middle age are supposed to have ended in 1453 AD., the year of the fall of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, into the hands of the Turks. The modern period is said to begin from this year. The theory of ‘socioeconomic formation’ as basis for the periodization of history. The modern age can be said to have begun with the development of capitalism in the world. As a new socioeconomic formation capitalism first appeared in Western Europe. It was in the late middle ages, approximately between the 15th and 17th centuries, that Capitalism had its embryonic origin. As far as Europe was concerned this was a period of Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism. The period witnessed a revolutionary change in the socio-economic structure of Europe. This change was reflected in a set of major inter related historical developments which were to stem the tide of capitalist expansion. as the Renaissance, the Reformation, the birth of modern science, the discovery of new continents and sea-routes resulting in the European colonization of globe’s vast regions etc. The existing feudal socio-economic formation began to be replaced by capitalism. But the modern age was not merely one of victory of capitalist society. It also proved the age of the rise of new forces Decline of Feudalism Feudal system was first emerged in Europe. The early name of Feudalism was clientage. The word feudalism was originated from the Latin word ‘Feudum’ (means Fief’). Fief means land given to peasant. Feudalism was based on the ownership of land by lords and their exploitation of the direct producers. The structure of feudal relationship was like a pyramid. King was on top of the pyramid and slaves were at the bottom. In short feudalism is a socio-politic and economic organization. Modern World History Page 5 School of Distance Education The unit of life in feudal Europe was the ‘manor’ or village. The serfs or villains were the largest class in the feudal hierarchy forming base of feudal pyramid. Medieval life was overwhelmingly rural, nine out of ten coming within the agrarian framework. These villains were bound to the soil and were subject to the manifold authority of the lord. Their suffering was very real and often found in open revolts. Such revolts became a feature of European life in the 14 th and 15th centuries. Examples – the peasants revolt in England and Germany, the Jacquerie in France and Dolcino in Italy. Gradually, the villains emancipated from the clutches of their lords. The decline of feudalism gradually began with the emergence of new ideas particularly with the disappearance of Barbarians from Western Europe. Protection was not required for the people and they were more conscious of their rights. They were trying to be free from the tyranny of feudal lords. Many factors led to the decay of feudalism. Economic changes were more important than political reasons. The revival of trade with the Near East and the growth of cities led to an expansion of commerce and industry which created new opportunities for the serfs in the towns. Secondly, rise in prices of agricultural products resulted in the purchasing power of the new class. Many, peasants gained freedom in this way. The ‘Black death’, which swept over Europe in the 14 th century also took a heavy toll of life from the working classes, which severely resulted in scarcity of labour. Moreover, as the towns increased in power and wealth due to trade and industry, the exacted independence from their lords. The modern European city owes its existence to its medieval ancestor. From the 10 th century onwards towns began to spring up throughout Europe. Politically, the important cause for the decay of feudalism was the rise of nation states, particularly England and France. Invention of gun powder revolutionized the methods of warfare. The Crusades also contributed to the weakening of Feudalism by eliminating powerful nobles. Lastly, the religious cause for the decline of feudalism was the all pervading nature of the Roman Catholic Church. The church was a powerful anti feudal force. While feudalism was local, the church was universal. The people gave allegiance to the church rather than to the feudal lord. This undermined the foundation of feudalism throughout Europe. The revival of trade and rise of towns in Europe marked the beginning of a new civilization centered around cities. The most important factor that aided the growth of towns was the economic factor, viz. the growth of trade and manufacturing. Town and trade had an interacting influence upon each other, so that the revival of one meant the revival of the other. The most important features of town life in Europe in the Middle Ages was the merchant and craft guilds that regulated trade and manufacture. Modern World History Page 6 School of Distance Education The artisans and merchants in the towns gradually won freedom from the feudal lords on whose domain the town stood. A self-governing city of this type was called a Commune. One striking change was the growth of wealthy class of merchants. The same change brought into being an urban proletariat. The economic change fundamentally altered the organization of medieval society which was feudal and rural. Thus the economic and social aspects of feudalism died in the rising towns. Effects of Crusades Crusade means ‘battle of the Cross’. At first the term was applied to the wars fought by the Christians to liberate Jerusalem, the Holy city of the Christians, which has been captured by the Muslim Turks. The primary cause of the Crusades was, no doubt, religious. There were four important Crusades. The Crusades helped for the decay of Feudalism to some extent, but paved the way for the growth of Monarchy in Europe. Politically, an important effect of Crusades was the development of nationalism that came as an aftermath of the Crusades. The crusades also led to the development of the towns, particularly Italian cities. An important theory regarding the result of Crusades is that it resulted in the economic growth and commercial development of the west with the contact of the East. It is often said that ‘Trade followed the Cross’. Though the knights lost Palestine, the Italian merchants gained from it. The maritime transport and commerce developed towards the West. Many articles of Commerce like silk, sugar and spices found their way to Europe. New markets developed in Europe, particularly central around Italian cities. The Crusades had began with an agricultural feudalism, inspired by German barbarism, Crossed with religious sentiment; they ended with the rise of industry and the expansion of commerce, in an economic revolution that heralded and financed the Renaissance. Another important result of the Crusades was in the sphere of social system. Crusades partially affected for the reversal of feudalism. The freedom of serfs from the barons was a good social result of the Crusade. The Eastern style of life and luxury of the East entered in Europe after the Crusades. Scholars consider crusades an important causative factor for the cultural glory that Europe gained after them. It is stated that the most valuable elements of Islamic civilization were transmitted to Europe through the Crusades. Modern World History Page 7 School of Distance Education The Muslim Architecture, Literature, Philosophy, Medicine and Science directly influenced European thought and culture in a big way which has been manifested in the beginning of the Renaissance. Europe, after the crusades, generally imbibed many technical secrets of the manufacture of glassware, the knowledge of Mariner’s Compass, gun powders and printing technology. The later Gothic Cathedrals reflect the influence of the new architecture entered into Europe. Another important result of the Crusades was the geographical knowledge of the Europeans with regard to orient. This also resulted in the study of the Geography and later Geographical Discoveries GROWTH OF TRADE AND TOWNS During the 12th and 13th centuries, the use of money, rather than goods, as a means of exchange led to a revival of commerce. A merchant class developed, renting land in places suitable for trade, often near a castle or abbey. These settlements often became thriving marketplaces for all sorts of goods. For a fee, a commercial settlement could obtain a charter from the local lord, establishing it as a town and giving it the authority to govern itself. Many lords were willing to grant charters to ensure a market for agricultural produce near. Developments of Science and Technology Discoveries and inventions of the Modern Age that helped to modernize the lives of the people were: Invention of the (Mariner’s) magnetic compass: This instrument was used by navigators. It helped them to locate their direction right in the middle of the sea. As this compass marked the two poles (north and south), it helped them to choose the correct direction. Traders and travelers in the middle Ages had no means to conduct their sea travels through safe courses. Due to the invention of the magnetic compass, an era of adventurous navigation began. The Invention of gun powder: With the making of gunpowder, the art of warfare in Europe was modernized. This helped kings to strengthen their defense provisions. It made the crown independent and reduced the dependency of the crown on nobles. Modern World History Page 8 School of Distance Education The Art of Printing: Soon after Europe entered the Modern Age, the art of modern printing was discovered. Due to this, the scope of education broadened, and very soon modern learning reached every corner of Europe. Acquiring knowledge became easier and a ground for the latest ideas was created. This helped to bring about changes in almoks of human life. Emergence of national consciousness A national consciousness is a shared sense of national identity that is a shared understanding that a people group shares a common ethnic/linguistic/cultural background. Historically, a rise in national consciousness has been the first step towards the creation of a nation. Nationalism requires first a national consciousness, the awareness of national communality of a group of people, or nation. National identities in Europe and the Americas developed along with the idea of political sovereignty invested in the people of the state. In Eastern Europe, it was also often linked to ethnicity and culture. An awakening of national consciousness is frequently ascribed to national heroes and is associated with national symbols Emergence of Nation States By 1500 Western Europe began to organise itself in a way that is similar to present day Europe. The relationship of lord & vassal which, with the vague claims of the Pope & The Emperor (holy roman emperor) in the background, so long seemed to exhaust political thought, gave way to idea of princely power over all the inhabitants of a domain. i.e. nation-state. Necessarily, the change to such state of affairs neither took place everywhere in the same way nor at the same pace. By 1800,France&England had been centuries unified in a way that Germany & Italy were still not. Causes for the emergence of Nation States: I. France: one of the first nation-states to cover anything like the area of their modern successors, France''s existence as a separate kingdom date back as early as 9th century. During the 14th & 15th centuries the unity was gently enhanced by the socalled Hundred Years' war with England. Modern World History Page 9 School of Distance Education II. England: A strong monarchy was established by William, the conqueror, in 11th century. The powers of the feudal lords were increased during the 12th & 13th centuries, but were gradually suppressed by the king during the 14th century; new additions to the infant English national mythology during the Hundred Years' war. Feudalism ended in England due to the war of roses in the late 15th century & monarchy was strengthened by Henry VII & successive Tudor Rulers. III. Spain: a great measure of unity was achieved bythe end of the 15th cenutry due to the reconquest (the long struggle against Islam); & Spanish nationalism was strengthened during the colonization of the new world. RENAISSANCE Renaissance in Italy From early 14th to late 16th century witnessed in Western and Central Europe an intense development in thought and culture. This intellectual and cultural movement generally reflected the transition of Europe from Medieval to Modern age. Historians label this development as Renaissance of Europe chiefly referring to the new trends in thinking, literature, arts and science. The term ‘Renaissance’ (French term) means revival or rebirth. First applied by th the 15 century Italian intellectuals to describe the revived study of the GreecoRoman classical learning. They believed that their are represented the rebirth of culture and learning following an ‘age of darkness’ as the termed middle ages. The present day historians however do not view either the medieval as ‘dark age’ or the interest in ancient classical as fully non-existent in the middle Ages. The modern historians, while not rejecting the term Renaissance, use it in a different sense. They apply it to connote the pervasive cultural movement that originated from the very medieval heritage in an age of transition from medieval to modern civilization. The Renaissance marked a new interest in the worldly affairs which of course echoed the Greeco-Roman attitude towards life. So quite naturally the Renaissance men evinced a particular concern for the classical culture of ancient Greeks and Romans. But it was only one aspect of Renaissance. In fact of Renaissance a vast movement representing a new way of thinking and a new set of social ideas which were to form part of modern civilization later. Modern World History Page 10 School of Distance Education The characteristic features of Renaissance can be summarized as follows: A new world outlook, humanist approach in contrast of the theocentrism of the middle ages, anti-scholastic trends, rational and materialist explanation of reality, idea of individualism, new conception of state power independent of church authority etc. Renaissance has its beginning in Italy which was historically the most favored place for it in Europe. Being part of any powerful empire, Italy was practically a land of several important city-states and some republican states. There were no powerful feudal lords or a priest politically dominate. From 12th century on Italy had a dynamic urban society thriving on flourishing crafts and profitable commerce with the East. Its prosperous cities like Venice, Genoa, Milan, Florence and Siena were dominated by great merchant and banker families who controlled politics too. The idea of citizenship had taken roots among this towns people. That this middle class was mainly concerned with pleasures and activities of this world gave them a secular rather than a religious attitude. These commercial wealthy families showed particular interest to patronise the Renaissance artists and writers. It is worthy of note that the earliest of the medieval European universities were founded in Italian towns (as Padua and Bologna). The growing contact with the Byzantine and Islamic civilization strengthened by the crusades had familiarised the Italians with new currents of thought. That Italy was the homeland of Roman civilization, which had left abundant physical remains of it there, was a factor of cultural inspiration in Italy. Humanism In medieval Europe Art, Science, Literature and Philosophy were bound up with religion. Later scholars who drew inspiration from Greek literature and philosophy replaced religion with man. The movement that started with man and his life placed in the focus is known as humanism. Simply Humanism, which became the hallmark of European Renaissance, first appeared in Italy in the field of learning. Humanism represented a fundamental shift from the ‘God-centered’ world view of the middle ages to the ‘Man centered’ world outlook of the modern age. Modern World History Page 11 School of Distance Education The Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) of Florence, generally regarded as the ‘Father of Humanism’, considered the classical authors distinctly ‘human’ because they were more concerned with man’s problems and possibilities on this earth than with the issues of God which interested medieval writers. His assertation was that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching could not give. These secular matters could be learnt from the human literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Following this exhortation of Petrarch these occurred in Italy, First in Florence, a vigorous search for and collection of manuscripts of forgotten ancient works. Ancient works were arduously procured from Libraries’ and Monasteries of different regions particularly Constantinople and Levant. Hundreds of books by ancient authors were copied in multiple numbers and distributed for reading not only to scholars, but also to wealthy middle class men, princes and clerics. It was this revived interest in the study of the human works of ancient that came to be knows as humanism in Italy. Humanism in its technical sense promoted the study of the humanities as part of formal education in Italian schools and the universities. The humanities which included subjects like Language, Literature, History, Philosophy, Ethics etc., were not directly associated with religion. The humanists, as the masters of these subjects were called, brought in a revolution in the educational theory and practice. Humanism that first developed in Italy was to have enormous influence on culture of other countries in Europe. It has a tremendous impact on Italian Literature, arts and science. Renaissance in literature The humanist writers of this period largely used secular themes for their compositions. Prose and poetry began to be written in vernacular instead of Latin. After an initial imitation of classical literary forms like drama, epic, novel and satire, the Renaissance literature soon created. Such new forms as essay, short story and literary criticism. The use of prose for all sorts of literary forms was a notable aspect. The Renaissance gave birth to a few really great litterateurs in Italy. The names of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and Machiavelli are immortal among them. Dante (1265-1321): He was an Italian writer who embodied the new spirit of rationality and creativity. Essentially a poet, Dante wrote prose also and dealt varied subjects as love, social life, philosophy, political theory and language. In this writings Dante supplanted the medieval allegories by deep human feelings. By for the most Modern World History Page 12 School of Distance Education celebrated work of Dante is ‘The Divine Comedy’, an epic poem providing the vision of Hell, purgatory and paradise. This work which is noted for its high moral quality is an ‘encyclopedia’ of the highest culture and knowledge of his age. The Divine comedy, which set the standard of Italian language for the later writers, is generally recognised as the greatest work of Italian Literature. Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): “The founding father of humanism” is the first of the great humanist writers of Italy. Petrarch, who loved life and stood eagerly interested in everything around him, was the embodiment of ‘Renaissance man’. A first class humanist scholar, and a lyric poet, Petrarch wrote songs and poems in Italian. He is best known for his ‘Ilcanzoniere’, a series of love poems dedicated to his love Laura. In 1341 the senate of Rome Crowned him as ‘poet laureate of Italy’. Petrarch’s writings have proved a major influence on many authors of the world. Boccaccio (1313-1375): Boccaccio, whom Petrarch considerably influenced, was a Renaissance scholar, poet and prose writer in the tradition of humanism. Boccaccio has been hailed by some as ‘the father of Italian prose’. His masterpiece ‘The Decameron’, a Series of Italian prose tales. Niccole Machiavelli (1469-1527): Machiavelli is a typical Italian Renaissance writer. He was writing at a time when Italian states were in their Political decline. Italy was being rocked by successive invasions from Spanish, French and German rulers. A statesman, political theorist and historian, Machiavelli had served the republican city state of Florence as an official for some time. Machiavelli wrote his famous political work, ‘The Price’ in which he explains the theory and practice of despotism. Renaissance in Art The new awakening of Europe liberated of art from the clutches of medieval religion. This can be learnt from the works of art of that period. Artists broke the chains of taboos and gave new expressions to humanism. Their works attained harmony with nature. The Renaissance artists turned to classical examples for inspiration and often chose their subjects from Greco-Roman world. Indeed, the most memorable contribution of the Renaissance art could be seen in paintings. The artist librated painting from subordination to architecture. Modern World History Page 13 School of Distance Education Before the 16th century, most of the paintings were frescoes. Two styles or schools of painting flourished in Italy in the Renaissance period. The Florentine and the venetian. The founder of Florentine School was Giotto. This School produced three remarkable painters-Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. Leonardo da Vinci was a versatile genius. Besides a painter he was an architect, poet, musician, engineer and a mathematician. His masterpieces in painting are ‘Mona Lisa’, ‘The Last Supper’. and ‘The Virgin of the Rocks’. Michelangelo was outstanding as a painter and architect. He is known for his paintings in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. His ‘Last Judgment’ and ‘The Fall of Man’ are among the most famous works of art in the world. Raphael, another Italian painter, is known for his paintings of ‘Madonna’, the mother of Jesus Christ. The paintings of Venetian School were free from mysticism and spirituality. They were basically materialistic in character. Architects of the Renaissance times adopted their building plans from the Roman churches. They discarded the Gothic Style. The Renaissance architecture was based on the cross-like floor plan with the decorative columns, arches and domes. Many good examples of Renaissance architecture are found among secular buildings. Music also flourished during the Renaissance period. Renaissance music was free from classical influence. Secularism and individualism reflected in music as well. Renaissance in science “Learn the truth of things rationally through experiments and observations”. - Roger Bacon (Father of modern science). The lines reveal the perspective that led to the development of modern sciences. During the medieval period the catholic church did not permit free thinking and spirit of enquiry. But the new thirst for knowledge paved the way for scientific enquiry. Copernicus formulated the ‘Helio Centric Theory’ by modifying Ptolemy’s ‘Geo-centric Theory’. Kepler widened the scope of the theory of Copernicus with the help of mathematics. Modern World History Page 14 School of Distance Education The inventions of the scientists, Isaac Newton and William Harvey paved the way for the development of modern science. The scientific spirit also led to important inventions like the printing press, paper, mariner’s compass etc. mariner’s compass led to Navigation, Geographical Discovery, Colonization and the Spread of Commerce, and the later industrial and Commercial Revolutions. James Edgar Swain observes, “Renaissance is a collective term used to include all the intellectual changes that were in evidence at the close of the middle ages at the beginning of modern times.” Renaissance outside Italy The end of fifteenth century Renaissance had its appearance in other European countries north of Italy. The growth of industry rise and trade, the consequent rise of a middle class and urban life in countries like Netherlands, France, Germany, Spain and England created the preconditions for the intellectual and cultural development there. It was in the field of learning and literature that Renaissance had its best expression in northern Europe. Like Italian the modern European languages as French, German, English, Spanish etc., developed as literary languages during this time. Certain specific features of Northern Renaissance are evident. Unlike the Italians, the Northern humanists were more inclined to base their modes of thought on medieval tradition than on Greeco-Roman. They were more concerned with applying ideas of Renaissance to the study of religion and modernization of Catholic doctrines and practices. Impact of Renaissance Renaissance was definitely to influence the onward course of European civilisation. Renaissance ideas of free-thinking, spirit of enquiry, critical evaluation, harmonious development of individual, avoid superstition etc., had spectacular results in the course of history. Renaissance gave birth to a new system of education whose curriculum included humanities and science which substantially contributed to the rise of modern culture. It greatly advanced the development of physical sciences in Europe. Renaissance spirit promoted people to challenge traditional ideas, institutions and beliefs. That Renaissance paved the way of reformation is a generally accepted fact. Similarly it played a prominent part in creating the more radical freethinking and atheism of the age of enlightenment. Modern World History Page 15 School of Distance Education REFORMATION Meaning of Reformation Martin Luther who started Reformation in Germany. He vehemently criticised the evil beliefs and immoral practices of the church. By translating the Bible into German he propagated Christian philosophy. He criticised the ‘sale of indulgence’ by Tetzel in Germany. He published Ninety Five theses against the evils of the Catholic Church. Those who followed the principles of Luther are called Lutherans. Reformation in England was started under the leadership of Henry VIII th , in Switzerland Ulrich Swingli and John Calvin The Reformation has been described as the child of Renaissance. Reformation is a general name given to a group of religious movement, which broke out in the later Middle Ages and came to a climax in the 16 th century, dividing Christians into two groups. One is Roman Catholics and Protestants. All these movements or upheavals were directed against the various drawbacks of the Church and the objectionable practices of clergymen. The main target of these movements was the Pope, the highest authority in the Church hierarchy. The movements created a clear split in the Christian Church. Those who continued to remain loyal to the Pope at Rome were called Roman Catholics, and those who revolted against him and broke away from the church at Rome were called Protestants. The Reformation movement broke out in England, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and Scotland. All Protestants did not share the same religious beliefs or follow the same rituals or ceremonies. Much difference could be noted between the Protestants of one country and those of another. An extreme form of Protestantism was Calvinism. Presbyterianism of Scotland and Puritanism of England were similar to Calvinism in simplicity, strictness and austerity. Though the Protestant movement was essentially religious, it was so complex and its results were so far-reaching that it looked much more than a mere religious movement and breach in the Church. The important of the Reformation can hardly be over-estimated. It was great importance in changing the course of history, because before the movement, the influence of the church pervaded every field of human activity. The Church commanded powerful influence over the lives of he people in the middle ages. It Modern World History Page 16 School of Distance Education regimented thought, influenced or actually controlled political institutions, hampered economic activities, and stunted literary and artistic developments. In the ages of absolute faith and unquestioned loyalty to the church, whatever the church dictated had to be accepted as gospel truth. The Reformation leaders wanted to changed all this and bring about radical changes. Causes of the reformation The causes of the Reformation can be traced to the middle ages. Even in the medieval period, there were mutterings and murmurings against the Churches authority. But individuals, with all their correct attitude and reasoning, could do little or almost nothing to correct the Church. The example of German emperors, who suffered punishment and humiliation at the hands of powerful Popes in the Investiture Struggle in the 11th and 12th centuries, must have silenced many men of independent thinking. Though Church authority continued long without being challenged seriously, a storm was slowly gathering. The Reformation did not burst suddenly. Several causes were at work against the numerous abuses of the Church in the later meddle age. 1. Spirit of Inquiry: We may put the spirit of inquiry as the most important cause of the Reformation, because without it the working of the Church could not be examined. Before the spirit of inquiry manifested itself, nobody could ever think of bringing the affairs of the Church under any scrutiny. In the age of faith in which Churchmen could get away with scandalous living and misuse of power, it was dangerous to criticise the Church and point out its drawbacks. In the middle ages, people were afraid to eroticize the Church openly as the Church was very rich and powerful, and could bend to its will even the proudest king of Europe. The Church had all the means and machinery to punish or even put to death all those who went against it, even though they might be right and the Church might have deserved condemnation. Severe persecution was launched against the Waldersee, a religious seet organized in southern France and northern Italy by Peter Waldo (1180). They began to deny the authority of the Church and the efficacy of the sacraments. But they could not be wiped out. They had criticized the luxurious life led by the clergy and regarded the Bible “as a sufficient guide to religious life”. Modern World History Page 17 School of Distance Education 2. Interest in Political Affairs: The Church began to take more and more unwholesome interest in political affairs, and this was disliked by kings and people, who felt that the Church should take interest only in the religious, spiritual and moral affairs. As the Church wished to increase its political power and prestige, its efficiency as a religious organization was impaired. The emergence of the “Holy Roman Empire” made the Popes entertain grand ideas about their power. Owing to the bungling or the mistakes committed by the so-called Holy Roman Emperors, The Popes were able to succeeded in the Investiture Struggle between them and the Emperors and increase their own power. 3. Moral Decline of the Church: Many of the Clergy, if not all, were mad after money and power. They seemed to worship Mammon instead of God. The wealth of the church multiplied. It owned huge estates and cash everywhere, and its treasuries were overflowing. The rapid increase of wealth inevitably led to increase in the comforts and luxuries of priests. Luxury and worldliness had shaped the moral strength of the Church. The people were looking forward to the Church to guide them morally, but they found that the clergymen themselves, who were ignorant and ineffective as priests, did not have high morals. The moral decline of the Church shook the faith of the people, and they began to regard the Church as another organization indulging in all worldly affairs including luxury. The Reformation movement powerfully attacked the moral decay of the church. The leaders of the movement could openly show how wealth and power had made the clergy corrupt and unfit to be regarded as the servants of God. They said that when the good things of a worldly and materialistic life entered the Church through the front door, spiritual and moral escaped through the hind door. It was openly said that the noble teachings of Christ were completely forgotten, and some of the clergy led such scandalous lives that people lost all respect for them. 4. Collection of Money: As observed earlier, the Church was very wealthy. But the clergy were collecting funds every now and then on various pretexts. The Pope ordered his deputies to collect money for general or specific purposes. If a new cathedral was to be built, or an old one was to be repaired, appeals were made for funds. The people were overburdened by the exactions of their kings and of the Popes. Kings resented the collection of funds by the Church, as it came in the way of raising more taxes. Efforts were also made to collect large sums of money by selling Christian antiques or relics, many of which were not genuine. Modern World History Page 18 School of Distance Education 5. Great Schism: Ugly quarrels in the Church led to the Great Sehism (1378-1415), and the Church further suffered loss of prestige. At one stage, instead of one Pope, there were two Popes: one elected by the Italian Cardinals, and the other by the French Cardinals (1378). Thus, at the highest level of the Church there was a great split. The confusion was further increased in 1409, when a third Pope was chosen at a joint meeting of the two groups of Cardinals. Loyalties of Christians were divided as a result of the Schism. Many were confused, and did not know to which Pope they should be loyal. The confusion was, however, ended in 1417, when at an election, held by the Church Council at Constance, a new Pope acceptable to all Christians was elected. 6. Public Opinion against Pope: Gradually, if not all people, large sections of the population belonging to different social classes were against the Pope for different reasons. The strong manifestation of public opinion against the Pope weakened Papacy. Kings were against the Pope, as they resented Papal interference and collected money from their subjects. The people were against the Pope, as they were overburdened by payment, and felt that the morally dealing Church did not deserve payment and loyality. Some did not like the rituals and sacraments of the Church. In Germany, Norway, Sweden and other countries, public opinion was expressing itself against all that was Latin or Italian in the Church. 7. Criticism by Scholars: Books by influential writers exposed all the weakness of the Church and prepared the ground for the Reformation. The malpractices of the Church were subjected to stinging attacks by the Dutch scholar Erasmus in his reputed book In praise of Folly. The prejudices and superstitions of society and the pretences of the Church were exposed to the most damaging criticism, and biting irony and sarcasm of Erasmus. The printing press multiplied the copies of the book, which travelled all over Europe. Every university felt the influence of Erasmus, and many scholars eagerly read the book and came to know about the moral hollowness of the Church hidden by beautiful veils. Though Erasmus would never join the side of Martin Luther in breaking away from the Church, but wished to be loyal to it, his satirical writings did irreparable damage to the prestige of the Church. Modern World History Page 19 School of Distance Education Leaders of the Reformation 1. John Wycliffe John Wycliffe (1320-1384) was an important early leader of the Reformation. He was an English priest and professor at Oxford, who taught theology till 1382. He openly criticized the Church and said that the humiliating agreement made by the English King John Lackland to pay tribute to the Pope need not be honored. He supported the state and said that it was higher than the Church. He was appointed rector of Fillingham (1361) of Ludgershall (1374). He wrote pamphlets against the tributes demanded by the Pope and went to Bruges in 1374 as a delegate for negotiations on the matter. Anti-Pope: He declared that the Pope was unworthy to become the representative of God on earth, as he was anti-Christ in spirit. Monasticism: He affirmed that monasticism could not be regarded as a true part of Christianity. The Bible was to be regarded as the only guide of Christians, who should put full faith in it. The Bible was translated into English by Wycliffe to enable the ordinary man to understand it. 2. John Huss John Huss (1369-1415), a priest and professor at the University of Prague in Bohemia, was strongly inspired by the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe. He criticized image worship, and the multiplication of rituals and collection of fees by priests for their services. He said that Christ, not Pope, is the head of the Church. A Pope should be obeyed only when his orders are in harmony with the law of Christ. Rebelling against a bad Pope was like obeying Christ. Like Wycliffe, he also exposed the pretences of the worldly and luxury-loving clergy, and emphasized the need for a check on the power of the Pope, through various sermons and pamphlets. The ranks of the Hussites swelled, and this was a cause of concern to the Pope. All Christians were not prepared to agree with John Huss, who along with his followers finally left Prague, and went to Leipzig, where they established the first university in Germany. Modern World History Page 20 School of Distance Education Against Indulgences: He criticized the sale of Indulgences by the Pope in 1411 for raising funds for a crusade against the king of Naples. Sale of Indulgences: Certain events in the Church revolutionized the life of Luther and broke up the Church. Luther was shocked to see in Rome the great display of opulence and grandeur. He felt that the Pope was hardly better than any of the Italian princes. Pope Leo X (1513-1521), desired to raise money for completing St. Peter’s Church in Rome. One of the steps of collection was the sale of Indulgences. He extended an Indulgence by issuing a bull on March 31, 1515. Under the Papal bult, Tetzel, a representative of Pope Leo, was collecting money at Wittenberg by selling Indulgences. It was believed that the purchaser of Indulgences did not make him totally free from punishment for sins, but the rigour of punishment would be reduced. The sale was made so boldly and vulgarly that even laymen of average intelligence were shocked. Honest people were shocked to learn that the Pope had instructed a banking firm to handle the income of the Indulgences, for which it was allowed one-third of the proceeds as profit. He did not understand why the Pope, who was fabulously rich, did not spend money from his own treasury to build St. Peter’s. Protestantism in Germany In Germany Luther’s Protestant movement was successful, and the opponents of the Church hailed him as a national hero. However, Luther’s reply to the Council of Worms (1520-21) made the German emperor declare war on heretics. Luther’s side was not weak, and a large section of the German population decided to challenge the Roman Catholic openly. Peasants’ Revolt: The reaction of the German princes was mixed. When the Peasant’s Revolt broke out in 1525, they were afraid of losing power, and hence they suppressed it ruthlessly, by massacring about 50,000 peasants. Luther’s approach was conservative, and his support was for the princes. Civil War: In the civil war (1530-1555) Germany was divided. The northern states of Germany were the Protestant followers of Luther, and the southern states were Catholic. In Germany Protestantism was legally recognized by the Peace of Augsburg (1555). By this the Holy Roman Emperor agreed to recognize Lutheranism side by side with Roman Catholicism as a legal religion. The ruler of a German state was free to accept either Roman Catholicism or Lutheranism, and the people were to follow his religion. Modern World History Page 21 School of Distance Education Lutheran Doctrine: We may briefly refer here to the basic points of the Lutheran doctrine jointly drafted by Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, a scholar of the University of Wittenberg. Protestantism in Northern European Countries Lutheranism spread in Northern European countries before long. The Kings of Sweeden, Denmark and Norway were against Roman Catholicism, and they took several steps to establish and strengthen Protestantism. Roman Catholic churches were got rid of and Lutheran National Churches were established in their place. The property of churches and monasteries was confiscated. Protestantism in Switzerland Calvinism: John Calvin was the reformer in Switzerland. He founded a more strict form of Protestantism which came to be called Calvinism, Calvin opposed the authority of Pope and asserted that the Bible alone is true. With the document of Luther he added the doctrine of pre destination. He held that the church must be independent and the church was to have a democratic form of Government. In Geneva he established a self governing church. Calvinism spread more rapidly in Europe than Lutheranism. His religion became the dominant force of Protestantism in England (Puritans), Scotland (Presbyterians), Holland, West Germany and France (Huguenots). According to Will Durent, “Calvin’s influence was even greater than Luther’s, but he walked in a path which Luther had cleared. Calvin gave to Protestantism in many lands an organization, confidence and pride that enabled it to survive a thousand trails”. The religious impact of Calvinism was inseparable from its political impact. Calvin’s idea of lay representation and popular control of the Church gave an impetus to popular government and republicanism. Counter Reformation The Reformation was a movement directed against the Roman Catholic Church. After the Reformation gathered momentum and secured the support of millions of Protestants in different European countries, the Roman Catholic Church itself launched a movement against the Reformation. This new movement was called the Counter Reformation. The main aim of the Counter-Reformation was to check the growth of Protestantism, and to reform, revitalize and strengthen the Roman Catholic Church. The Popes and their supporters felt that unless some concrete steps were taken, the Roman Catholic Church might weaken more and more, and even face extinction. Modern World History Page 22 School of Distance Education A concerted Counter-Reformation movement was launched with the four-fold purpose of punishing, reforming, converting, and rendering social service. The Inquisition was to punish, the Council of Trent was to introduce reforms and the Society of Jesus was to render service to God and society, and convert people to Christianity. Inquisition: The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic tribunal first formed in 1210 for conducting inquiry into cases of heresy and meting our punishment. The first Inquisitor General was St. Dominic. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX established a committee in each Parish to discover heretics, who were to be examined. If found guilty, they were excommunicated and given over to the civil arm for punishment, which included torturing and execution by burning. The Spanish Inquisition, which was a civil court, was set up in Castile in 1478. In 1483, the Inquisition was firmly established in Spain. The Inquisition was relentless and brutal in its methods, and it soon became an engine of cruelty and oppression. Its techniques of torture and punishment were revolting, barbarous and inhuman. People dreaded it and shivered to think of its procedures. Spain, which provided the seat of the Inquisition, became unpopular, and it invited the wrath and rebellion of people, who were oppressed. The northern provinces of Netherlands, which were under the iron heel of Spain, revolted and made themselves independent in 1609. Church of Reform: Paul III, Paul IV, Pius V, Sixtus V and other Popes earnestly desired to introduce reforms in the Roman Catholic Church and improve its moral tone. Some zealous and intellectually inclined Roman Catholics advocated far-reaching reforms, which would not only improve the Church, but also reunite the Catholic and Protestant Churches on certain basic common principles. Failure of the Rotisbon Conference: The Ratisbon Conference convened in Germany in 1541 by Pope Paul III had great objectives no doubt, but it was impossible to resolve the difference and strike a common ground. On the failure of this conference, the wide gap between the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches continued. Reforms of the Council of Trent: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) held on the border of Italy and Germany was attended by Roman Catholic leaders. The deliberations continued at various sittings over a period of 18 long years, and certain broad decisions were taken. Modern World History Page 23 School of Distance Education 1. The Pope was regarded as the head of the Roman Catholic Church, and he was the final interpreter of all Christian doctrines. 2. A clear statement of the Church doctrines without making any compromise was issued. New Church service books, and the Vulgate, a new Latin edition of the Bible which became the official Bible of the Roman Catholics, were prepared. 3. A set of disciplinary rules was prepared for Church officials with a view to remove corruption and malpractices. The pernicious system of Simony and sale of Indulgences were condemned. Proper training was to be given to the clergy in schools. 4. An index of books, which were unworthy of being read by Roman Catholics, was prepared. 5. The Inquisition was revived to punish offenders. Consequences of the Reformation 1. Division of Christianity: It broke up the Unity of Christendom. Europe came to be divided into two groups, the Catholic group consisting of France, Spain, Italy etc. and the Protestant group including North Germany, Denmark, England, Holland etc. 2. Religious intolerance and wars. The rivalry between Catholicism and Protestantism led to intolerance and serious religious wars. This also gave way for religious persecution. The Thirty Year’s War (1618-1648) broke out in Germany on the issue of religion. It ruined Germany and thwarted German unification for two hundred years. Internal and International politics came to be hopelessly intermingled with religion. Many Christian groups like Lutherans, Calvinists, Puritans, Huguenots, Presbyterians, Anabaptists, Pentecost’s etc. have sprung up in different parts of Europe and America. The religious rivalry party came to an end with The Edict of Nantes in 1598 which gave a remarkable degree of toleration to the Huguenots in France. 3. Politically the Reformation and the Counter Reformation movement divided Europe into several fragments. It gave strength to Nation States, royal absolutism and Democratic and Republican spirits. Powerful national monarchies in Europe particularly France, Austria, Prussia and England sprang Modern World History Page 24 School of Distance Education up. Protestants encouraged democracy even in the churches Calvinism advocated a democratic form of Government for the church and the state. The Calvinists were Champions of Democracy. 4. There were some economic results with the rise of Reformation. Reformation itself was partly due to the outbreaks and revolts among the peasantry. In Germany the peasant’s revolts accelerated the works of Lutherans. A new favourable atmosphere for economic growth created by the Reformation was highly congenial for the all round social and economic progress. The Reformation encouraged a new attitude of individualism in economic matters and a new business class sprang up in many parts of Europe. The great sociologist Max Weber sees this economic development as indispensable in the development of modern capitalism. 5. Another important result of the Reformation was the secularization of life and Society. The unending religious controversy led to a sort of indifference towards religion which finally resulted in the secularization of Life and Society. 6. Protestantism promoted freedom of the mind unfamiliar to the Catholic. The Protestant Revolt left a rich legacy to the individual. It also led to the later European Enlightenment. As Will Durent observes, “Reformation rendered great services to Enlightenment. It broke the authority of dogma, generated a hundred sects that would formerly have died at the stake, and allowed among them such virile debate that reason was finally recognized as the bar before which all sects had to plead their cause unless they were armed with irresistible physical force. In that pleading, by attack and defense, all sects were weakened, all dogmas; and a century after Luther’s exaltation of faith. Francis Bacon proclaimed that knowledge is power, “Moreover Reformation greatly influenced later 17th century thinkers like Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza and Locke who offered philosophy as a substitute or basis for religion. Protestant Revolt was favorable to the spirit of critical, unfettered enquiry that was to culminate in the 18th Century Enlightenment. In short, the Reformation began with ideas and ended with force. An era of liberal thought closed in a fever of war; and methods; of blood and iron supplanted the force of Reason. Modern World History Page 25 School of Distance Education Discoveries of New Trade Routes The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, the geographical explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a great effect on the course of history. Before these explorations, there was contact between Western and Oriental countries, but this was through land. It was difficult to cover vast distances through mountains and deserts, and brave and adventurous travelers took a long time, sometimes even the major part of their lives to reach their destination. Then again, even when land contacts had been established, to most of the Europeans, many Oriental countries were closed books. In the later middle ages, bold and enterprising men of Europe sailed in the unknown seas and discovered new sea routes and new continents. Geographical discoveries, like other forces, put great power in the hands of Europeans and illustrated in one more way how Europe marched ahead at a breathless pace, while Oriental countries became stagnant and were left far behind them. Owing to the relatively early expulsion of the Moors from Spain, Political stability, and comparative peace. Portugal was the better placed than any other European nation to take a lead in making geographical explorations. As the natural resources of Portugal were poor, the Portuguese were looking forward overseas for the luck of exploration, trade and colonization. Sea Routes Modern World History Page 26 School of Distance Education Results of Geographical Discoveries These explorations later brought about tremendous socio-economic changes in Afro-Asian and Latin American countries. What could they be? Colonisation, Economic exploitation, Trade revelry, Emergence of new culture, spread of Christianity etc. In short it inaugurated a new era of commerce and colonisation. The expansion of the world gradually led to the expansion of man’s mind and speeded up the intellectual revolution started by the Renaissance. The discovery of new routes diverted the course of commerce from Mediterranean to the Atlantic ocean. The centre of gravity of trade and commerce is now shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Italian cities, Venice and Genoa, lost their commercial supremacy and some European cities came into prominence. The geographical discoveries let to European colonisation all over the world, especially in America and Asia. It changed the economic life of Europe and marked the beginning of Capitalism. Moreover, the discoveries resulted in the spread of Christianity into Asia, Africa and America. Finally by the discoveries, the Europeans were able to establish colonies in the new world and in India. America was soon Europeanised. But one pathetic result of the explorations was the cruel treatment of the natives in the new world particularly in Africa. Slave trade increased. The European powers like Britain, France, Germany etc. began to compete for colonies. Growth of International Trade and Market –Commercial revolution Geographical discoveries brought about radical economic changes. It led to tremendous increase in the volume of trade. Regular trade contacts among continents were established and trade became global. The growth in the volume of trade and the associated changes brought about what is called the commercial Revolution. The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a great impetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. The new colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for getting raw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seen with advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middle class and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in this sphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production and Modern World History Page 27 School of Distance Education distribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The new concept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth of commercial Revolution. Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. The commercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money and exchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by the emergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolution brought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the market and the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisation ultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the following centuries, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Modern World History Page 28 School of Distance Education ModuleII DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND ECONOMY Rise of Nation-States Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to power in France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support of middle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modern phenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism in the world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in the process of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of people established on the basis of a common economic life combined with a common language, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudal disunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economic ties between regions and merges local markets into a national market. Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times. In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the late medieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its first historical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created the material conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudal political structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. In medieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culture were generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic and ethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the natural leaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power. The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class played a principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and other new economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental to their interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought to strengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their own army and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle class support, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of the destruction of the power of feudal lords began. Modern World History Page 29 School of Distance Education The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be of immense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now lay important before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition was now created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformation provided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growth of national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notable factor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent political thinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state. The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thus in the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation of nations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting a defined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge as single nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At that time, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europe were France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland. Development of absolute Monarchies Modern Revolutions or democratic revolutions mainly stood for popular participation in government, setting up of parliaments and the extension of the existing ones and enforcing Universal adult franchise. The contradiction between the interests of national monarchs and that of the rising middle class was the basic cause of the democratic revolutions. The rulers of nation-states, who had gradually became rigid autocrats, denied the people their basic rights. The allied with the aristocracy and church and passed many unjust laws restricting freedom and civil rights. The people, including those the sections who earlier supported strong monarchs, began to protest against these unjust laws and against the despotic powers of the monarchs. The bourgeoisie played the most significant role in the struggle against absolutism. They opposed absolutism and demanded a share in the state power. Hence, these revolutions expressed the interests and political ambitions of the middle class. He was in this context that democratic revolutions took place in England, America, France and throughout Europe. Modern World History Page 30 School of Distance Education The English revolution-absolutism in England In 17th century absolute monarchs in European countries like England and France by attractive terminologies as ‘Grand monarchy’. Stuart King of England were staunch exponents of feudalism. The parliament, on the other hand, represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. Interestingly, the English Revolution began in the form of a conflict between the King and Parliament over the question of political power. The Stuart Kings or parliament the supreme authority of the state. The struggle over this question raged intermittently throughout the Stuart period and ended only when James-II, the last Stuart ruler, was deposed. The persistent struggle between the King and the parliament created two Revolutions in England. The civil war (1642) and The Glorious Revolution of 1688. These revolutions established the parliamentary supremacy in England. Stuart Kings were absolute rulers. They upheld the theory of ‘Divine Right’ of Kings. The doctrine that Kings are appointed by God and that for their actions they are responsible to him alone and not to parliament. The early Stuarts tried to develop their Privy Council into a strong executive agency composed of ministers and officials personally devoted to the King. They tried to monopolies the power to make laws. They tried to use the highest royal courts to punish the opponents of their policies. They tried to impose taxes without consulting the parliament. They maintain a standing army to enforce the royal will. Above all, the tried to monopolise the various organs and functions of the government. The absolutism of Stuarts, therefore, made a struggle with the parliament inevitable. The parliament had became an independent and assertive body during the Stuart period. It was dominated by Puritans, the champions of liberty. Parliament claimed supreme sovereignty and held that the King was subordinated to it. It rejected the Divine Right theory held by the Stuarts. The parliament asserted that The King had no right either to impose new taxes or to make laws. The conflicting interests of Stuart and their parliament thus prepared the ground for this Revolution. Modern World History Page 31 School of Distance Education Divine right theory of kingship One of the old theory of kingship a sovereign derives his authority from god by virtue of his royal birth. therefore he is responsible to god alone. people have no right to overthrow even a bad monarch. the oppressive rule of cruel king must be taken a divine punishment of the people for their sins and crimes. in England the Stuart kings were the upholders this right divine of kings to govern wrong. The English parliament opposed this theory and the rivalry culminated in the execution of Charles one and expulsion of James second. Louis XIV Louis XIV (1638-1715) was king of France from 1643 to 1715. He brought the French monarchy to its peak of absolute power and made France the dominant power in Europe. His reign is also associated with the greatest age of French culture and art. After the chaos of the Wars of Religion, the French monarchy had been reestablished by Louis XIV's grandfather, Henry IV. Successive rulers and ministers (Henry himself, Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, and Cardinal Mazarin) had done all in their power to make the king absolute ruler within France and to make France, instead of the Hapsburg coalition of Spain and the empire, the dominant power in Europe. By the time Louis assumed personal control, the groundwork for final success had been laid. It was Louis who brought the work to completion, enforcing his will over France and Europe to an unprecedented extent and establishing the administrative machinery that made France a modern state. Louis was born at Saint-Germain on Sept. 5, 1638, the son of Louis XIII and his wife, Anne of Austria. His birth was greeted with immense national rejoicing, and he was hailed as le Dieudonné, "the God-given." On May 16, 1643, his father died, and Louis became king. As he was only 4, the country was governed by his mother as regent; this meant, in effect, by Cardinal Mazarin, with whom Anne was in love. The successive rebellions known as the Fronde failed to dislodge Mazarin, although they left the boy king with a lifelong horror of rebellion and a resentment of Paris, where the uprising had started. Mazarin remained in power for the rest of his life, and only when he died, on March 9, 1661, did Louis astonish the court by announcing that hence-forward he would direct his government himself. He meant what he said. The government remained under Louis's personal control for the next 54 years. Modern World History Page 32 School of Distance Education European Trading Companies in the East The important European trading companies are Dutch East India company, English East India Company, French East India Company, etc. Dutch East India Company: This company was formed in 1502, by a group of Amsterdam merchants in the Netherlands. In 1595Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch trader came to India and returned a couple of years later with a rich cargo that yielded huge profits. This encouraged many Dutchmen to sail to India and set up trading companies. in 1602 all Dutch companies were amalgamated and the United-East India company of Netherlands or simply the Dutch east India company, was established by the state general of the Netherlands. English East India company: This company, popularly known as John company. founded by the Royal charter of Queen.Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600,became one of the most powerful commercial enerprisesin its time.the company was founded by a group ofenerprising and influential businessmen,who obtained the crown’s charter for exclusive permision to trade inthe East indiesfo 15 years.in england the company had secured the backing of the english monarchs and political leaders by giving them valuable gifts. The French East India Company(1664): Among the Europeans,the french were the last to enter india for trade.though individual french merchants and travellerslikeBernier and Tavernir had visited india before this date there was no great enthusiasm among Frech people for eastern trade.in 1644 Colbert,the minister of Luis XIV,encouraged the founding ofv the East India Company with a capital of 15 million francs,one fifth of which was advanced by the State. Mercantilism One of the economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerful state. Adam Smith coined the term “mercantile system” to describe the system of political economy that sought to enrich the country by restraining imports and encouraging exports. This system dominated Western European economic thought Modern World History Page 33 School of Distance Education and policies from the 16to the late 18centuries.The goal of these policies was, supposedly, to achieve a “favorable” balance of trade that would bring gold and silver into the country and also to maintain domestic employment. In contrast to the agricultural system of the physiocratsor the laissezfaire of the 19and early 20centuries, the mercantile system served the interests of merchants and producers such as the British East India Company, whose activities were protected or encouraged by the state. The most important economic rationale for mercantilism in the 16was the consolidation of the regional power centers of the feudal era by large, competitive nation states. Other contributing factors were the establishment of colonies outside Europe; the growth of European commerce and industry relative to agriculture; the increase in the volume and breadth of trade; and theincrease in the use of metallic monetary systems, particularly gold and silver,relative to barter transaction. During the mercantilist period, military conflict between nationstates wasboth more frequent and more extensive than at any other time in history. The armies and navies of the main protagonists were no longer temporary forces raised to address a specific threat or objective, but were full time professional forces. Each government’s primary economic objective was to command a sufficient quantity of hard currency to support a military that would deter attacks by other countries and aid its own territorial expansion. Most of the mercantilist policies were the outgrowth of the relationship between the governments of the nation states and their mercantile classes. In exchange for paying levies and taxes to support the armies of the nation states, the mercantile classes induced governments to enact policies that would protect their business interests against foreign competition. These policies took many forms. Domestically, governments would provide capital to new industries, exempt new industries from guild rules and taxes, establish monopolies over local and colonial markets, and grant titles and pensions to successful producers. In trade policy the government assisted local industry by imposing tariffs, quotas, and prohibitions on imports of goods that competed with local manufacturers. Governments also prohibited the export of tools and capital equipment and the emigration of skilled labor that would allow foreign countries, and even the colonies of the home country, to compete in the production of manufactured goods. At the same time, diplomats encouraged foreign manufacturers to move to the diplomats’ own countries. Shipping was particularly important during the mercantile period. With the growth of colonies and the shipment of gold from the New World into Spain and Portugal, control of the oceans was considered vital to national power. Because Modern World History Page 34 School of Distance Education ships could be used for merchant or military purposes, the governments of the era developed strong merchant marines. In France, Jean Baptiste Colbert, the minister of finance under Louis XIV from 1661 to 1683, increased port duties on foreign vessels entering French ports and provided bounties to French ship builders. In England, the Navigation Act of 1651 p rohibited foreign vessels from engaging in coastal trade in England and required that all goods imported from the continent of Europe be carried on either an English vessel or a vessel registered in the country of origin of the goods. Finally, all trade be between England and its colonies had to be carried in either English or colonial vessels. The Staple Act of 1663 extended the Navigation Act by requiring that all colonial exports to Europe be landed through an English port before being re exported to Europe. Navigation policies by France, England, and other powers were directed primarily against the Dutch, who dominated commercial marine activity in the16thand 17thcenturies.During the mercantilist era it was often suggested, if not actually believed that the principal benefit of foreign trade was the importation of gold and silver. According to this view the benefits to one nation were matched by costs to the other nations that exported gold and silver, and there were no net gains from trade. For nations almost constantly on the verge of war, draining one another of valuable gold and silver was thought to be almost as desirable as the direct. Commercial Revolution Geographical discoveries led to tremendous increase in the volume of trade. Regular trade contacts among continents were established and trade became global. The growth in the volume of trade and the associated changes brought about what is called the commercial Revolution. The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a great impetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. The new colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for getting raw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seen with advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middle class and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in this sphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production and distribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The new concept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth of commercial Revolution. Modern World History Page 35 School of Distance Education Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. The commercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money and exchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by the emergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolution brought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the market and the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisation ultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the following centuries, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to power in France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support of middle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modern phenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism in the world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in the process of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of people established on the basis of a common economic life combined with a common language, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudal disunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economic ties between regions and merges local markets into a national market. Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times. In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the late medieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its first historical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created the material conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudal political structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. In medieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culture were generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic and ethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the natural leaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power. The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class played a principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and other new economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental to their interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought to Modern World History Page 36 School of Distance Education strengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their own army and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle class support, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of the destruction of the power of feudal lords began. The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be of immense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now lay important before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition was now created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformation provided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growth of national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notable factor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent political thinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state. The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thus in the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation of nations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting a defined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge as single nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At that time, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europe were France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland. Modern World History Page 37 School of Distance Education Module- III DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY The English Revolution of 1688 The Glorious Revolution constitutes a turning point in the history of England. We have already seen the limited monarchical position of Charles II, who has been restored in 1660. He was cautious and diplomatic and never wanted to invite the displeasure of the parliament. In 1685 he was succeeded by his brother James-II. James II, in his short reign of three years, got opposition from all sides. He was a staunch Catholic and a firm believer in absolute monarchy. Hence he met with better experiences from the parliament and the people. The real reason for the revolution of 1688 was James’ attempt to re-establish Catholicism and absolutism in England. The re-catholisation attempt in all offices, particularly in the Universities in England by james-II, greatly antogonised the people in the parliament. James II granted complete toleration to Catholics of Scotland and issued a declaration of indulgence in favour of Catholics and Dissenters which invited much Criticism in England. Mean while, his Queen gave birth to a son to the embarrassment of the parliament and to the people with a possible ‘danger’ catholic succession. This also thwarted the prospect of Mary, daughter of James, who married to William of Orange. This danger to the protestant succession of England has been solved factfully and diplomatically by the parliament by inviting Mary and her husband Wiliam of Orange as the joint rulers of England. This peaceful change of power over England is known as ‘Bloodless’, or ‘Glorious Revolution’. The real Glory of the revolution was that it was without Army, Civil War or Bloodshed. A new era in English History was inaugurated. In short, the revolution of 1688 resulted in the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England. Bill of Rights Some of the ideas of the English Bill of Rights were incorporated in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. The English Revolution made significant changes in the British Political system. For the first time in European history, arbitrary royal rule based on Divine Right was replaced by a constitutional monarchy with a massive transfer of power to parliament. Before becoming King, William had to Modern World History Page 38 School of Distance Education accept a number of drastic limitations on the royal power. These limitations were then incorporated into the Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1689. The Bill of Rights was almost a short written constitution. Its most important provisions were: maintaining a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal, parliament should meet frequently, making or suspending any law without the consent of Parliament is illegal, English men have the right to petition to sovereign, levying taxes without the consent of Parliament is illegal, Elections of members of parliament must be free, Excessive bail should not be demanded, There must be freedom of speeches in Parliament and the right to participate in its debates. An Indirect result of the revolution was the growth of Cabinet system. The Bill of Rights was one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain. It reaffirmed and extended the rights of Englishmen a set forth in Magna Carta. It gave a permanent constitutional form to all the restraint that parliament had tried to put on the Stuart Kings. If raid down the essential principles of parliamentary supremacy control of the purse, prohibition of the royal power of dispensation and frequent meetings of parliament. Bill of Rights thus confirmed the revolution by shifting Sovereignty from the crown to parliament. After 1832, a large number of reforms were carried out in various fields. Enlightenment: 18th Century is commonly described as the age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural revolution. Philosopher R.G. Collingwood described the ‘Enlightenment as a Crusade against religion.’ The Enlightenment or the Age of Reason, as it came to be known subsequently, marked a sharp break with the past. Its leaders revolted against the traditional outlook and ideology and challenged many of the old institutions of European societies. Enlightenment thus announced the commencement of modern age. Enlightenment was the product of the Scientific Revolution of the 17 th century. Rapid growth of science and the development of scientific method brought about a radical change in human approach. Science came to be seen as system of knowledge capable of explaining everything related to the physical universe. This precipitated the revolution called Enlightenment, which embodied the intellectual and scientific developments of the early modern world. The more intellectually sections of the middle class began to feel that their societies were defective, and sought to bring Modern World History Page 39 School of Distance Education change by changing ideas. This led to a much more far-reaching attack on prejudice and superstition than had occurred in the renaissance and reformation. The result was a current of ideas called Enlightenment. The concept of Enlightenment In a sense, Enlightenment was a revolt against tradition and a leap towards modernity. It led a crusade against irrational tradition, prejudice, obscurantism, Superstitions or revelation and oppression. It questioned blind obedience to authority, whether that of the priest or the ruler. Enlightenment used the scientific method of enquiry to launch a systematic attack on tradition. The principal targets were religion and the domination of society by a hereditary aristocracy. The Enlightenment men attempted to undermine the centrality accorded to religion and hierarchy in social and political life. The Enlightenment was based on the concept of Reason. Its exponents believed that human reason could be used to combat ignorance, superstition and tyranny and to build a better world. The Enlightenment embodies the spirit of optimism. Its advocates believed that they lived in a world marked by greater well being and happiness of all. The thought that human beings were able to create a world in which freedom, liberty and happiness would prevail over all else. This vision was clearly evident in the writings of Voltaire, Diderot, d’Alembert, Condorcet, Adam smith, David Hume and Immanual Kant Important features of Enlightenment are, 1. The idea of progress 2. Rationalism 3. Secularism 4. Naturalism 5. Humanitarianism 6. Liberalism 7. Utilitarianism 8. Romanticism The Enlightenment Philosophers like Hobbes,Francis Bacon John Locke, Diderot and the central figures of the age of Enlightenment are Rousseaue, Voltaire and Montesquieue. Modern World History Page 40 School of Distance Education John Locke Locke (1632- 1704) was one of the philosophers of England and he was a critic of political absolutism. ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding,’ he advanced his arguments against absolute monarchy. John Locke propounded his own version of the social contract theory. In his ‘Two Treatises on Government’ John Locke inflicted a death blow to the doctrine of Divine Right. Locke pointed out that the ruler ruled not by Divine Right, but by virtue of a contract with his people. He proclaimed a new test for good Government, namely the happiness of the subjects and welfare of the state. This was the initial stage of the theory of Enlightenment despotism. Francis Bacon Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 in London. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal for Elizabeth I. Bacon studied at Cambridge University and at Gray's Inn and became a member of parliament in 1584. However, he was unpopular with Elizabeth, and it was only on the accession of James I in 1603 that Bacon's career began to prosper. Knighted that year, he was appointed to a succession of posts culminating, like his father, with keeper of the great seal. However, Bacon's real interests lay in science. Much of the science of the period was based on the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. While many Aristotelian ideas, such as the position of the earth at the centre of the universe, had been overturned, his methodology was still being used. This held that scientific truth could be reached by way of authoritative argument: if sufficiently clever men discussed a subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered. Bacon challenged this, arguing that truth required evidence from the real world. He published his ideas, initially in 'Novum Organum' (1620), an account of the correct method of acquiring natural knowledge. Bacon's political ascent also continued. In 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor, the most powerful position in England, and in 1621 he was created viscount St Albans. Shortly afterwards, he was charged by parliament with accepting bribes, which he admitted. He was fined and imprisoned and then banished from court. Although the king later pardoned him, this was the end of Bacon's public life. He retired to his home at Gorham bury in Hertfordshire, where he continued to write. He died in London on 9 April 1626. Modern World History Page 41 School of Distance Education American War of Independence Causes of the Revolution: American was of Independence popularly known as American Revolution (1775-83) was the revolt of the 13 colonies of England in North America to be free from their mother country which was following a policy of Imperialism. The war of independence is regarded as an indirect result of the Seven Years War. In that War, the colonists in America became conscious of their strength. So the possibilities of Union among themselves had gained experience and training as soldiers and officers. 1. Mercantilism: 2. Navigation Laws: The Navigation Laws passed by Great Britain were detrimental to the interest of the colonies in 1650. The Laws insisted that all goods from the colonies to be shipped in British vessels alone, and some goods were to be sold exclusively to British merchants only. 3. Sugar Act: The British government now came to the view that since the war was fought for the defense of the colonists also, the latter had to bear a part of the imperial burdon. Britain first began to strictly enforce the Navigation Acts with the help of the increased number of British official said troops. It then passed a series of acts to raise revenues from the colonies. The first of these was the Revenue Act of 1764, generally known as Sugar Act. The Sugar Act increased the import duty on refined sugar and taxed imported items like wine, coffee, silk and linen. Shocked by the sudden vigour of imperial control after decades of ‘salutary neglect’, the colonists protested against the Sugar Act. They argued that the British parliament had no right to tax them. 4. Stamp Act: England passed several laws against colonial smuggling. She also proposed to station a force of ten thousand in America “for the defense of the colonies”. About one third of the defense cost was to be borne by the colonies and the amount was to be raised by a stamp duty on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets etc. This stamp Act was passed in 1765. This Act provoked anger and violence. The liberty loving Americans immediately raised the cry “No taxation without representation”. This meant that the colonists wanted not to be ruled by a parliament three thousand miles away. They wanted to have their own parliament and rule themselves. Riots broke out in America. Effigies of stamp collectors were burnt. Later, the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766. But at the same time a Declaratory Act was passed asserting that Great Britain had the right to tax the colonies. Additional troops were sent to enforce the right of taxation. Modern World History Page 42 School of Distance Education 5. Boston Tea Party: The Import Duties Act passed in 1767 by Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of Exchequer of England. decided to increase the revenue of the state by levying a tax on tea, glass and paper entering American ports. There was a storm of protest against this Act and many riots occurred in Boston. In 1769 the duties of glass and paper were withdrawn but retained the duty on tea. Some patriots in America, by this time, started agitation against Britain. The people of Boston attacked some British soldiers and in the clash four townsmen were killed. The colonists magnified the incident as a massacre (The Boston Massacre, 1773). The revolutionaries entered into some ships of English East India Company bearing tea coming to the port of Boston and a few chests of tea were thrown into the sea. This incident, the “Boston Tea Party” in 1773 instigated the British and they soon closed down the Port of Boston. They also sent troops to suppress the revolutionaries. Persuasive Speech and persistent agitation by leaders like James Otis, Patrik Henry, Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, greatly helped the movement towards War and Independence. George Washington was a leader of the revolutionaries who made the revolution to a positive end. He was supported ably by leaders like Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, Frankline and others. Washington was leading an army which was short of many things including food and dress. A writer comments, Gerorge Washington’s route in the revolutionary movement can be detected easily by the bloodstains found in the land, because they have no enough shoes or even a moiety of a shirt”. It was really his courage and determination that won the revolution. In June 1776 many of the delegates of the colonies met in series of congresses which met at Philadelphia drew up the famous Declaration of Independence, initiated by Thomas Jefferson. The declaration dealt with the ‘inalienable rights’ of men to secure their life, liberty and happiness by organizing their own Government based on the consent of the people. Very soon they declared the freedom of the 13 colonies from the mother country. The War broke out in 175 and lasted for about eight years. The war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The 13 colonies became free and in 1789 the United States of America (USA) was born as a Republic with a new constitution. Modern World History Page 43 School of Distance Education Results of the Revolution - Formation of the constitution of USA George Washington was the First President of USA. A new constitution was drawn up with the efforts of Alexander Hamilton and other leaders. The Constitution made the American people a nation and it defined the respective powers of the Central Government and Federal States. The Central Government was given the control of the army and the navy, and the power to make war and peace, and the issue of currency. The US constitution highlighted the following things: (1) An elected President (2) A written constitution (3) Separation of Church and State (4) Separation of powers, particularly, Executive and judiciary (5) A Federal Republic. The new constitution of USA fully imbibed the spirit of the Declaration of Independence passed in 1776. Historical significance The American War of Independence was the fuller expression of the inalienable rights of men and the accommodation of the age long ambition of national freedom. The revolution discredited the principle of absolutism and emphasized the right of the people to overthrow any oppressive Government. The Declaration of Independence emanated that “all men are equal” which in later even influenced the French Revolutionaries. The new Republican Government in USA was a political experiment with many novel features, inviting to the study of political scientist. Modern World History Page 44