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DIVERSITY NOTES
Levels of Organization:
Cells – Tissue – Organ – Organ System - Organism – Population – Community – Ecosystem
CLASSIFICATION - CH 19 - PAGES 308-314
I. TAXONOMY - Study of the grouping of organisms
A. Taxon- group of organisms defined by the classification scheme (class, family)
B. Levels of Taxa – Domain, Kingdom, Phylum (in animals)/Division (in plants), Class, Order,
Family, Genus, Species
C. Three Domains, Six Kingdoms – Listed from most primitive to most advanced
1. Domain Archaea – Kingdom Archaebacteria
2. Domain Bacteria – Kingdom Eubacteria
3. Domain Eukarya
a. Kingdom Protista - euglena, amoeba, paramecium, algae
b. Kingdom Fungi
c. Kingdom Plantae - ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms
d. Kingom Animalia - vertebrates, invertebrates
II. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE - The naming of an organism
A. The scientific name of an organism is: Genus/species
1. Homo sapiens – humans
2. Felis domesticus - house cat
B. Rules
1. Capitalize 1st letter of genus name
2. Underline genus and species names
3. 1st use of name must be written out in each paragraph
4. After 1st use - abbreviate genus name to 1st letter:
H. sapiens
F. domesticus
THERMOREGULATION – Strategies for regulation of body temperature & metabolism
I. Ectothermy – when organisms use external thermal energy to help regulate & maintain body temperature
A. Behavioral, physiological, or anatomical adaptations that increase an animal's ability to survive
in a certain environment
1. hibernation
2. hair, feathers, blubber
3. staying in the shade
4. restrict activity to night
II. Endothermy – when organisms use thermal energy that is generated by their metabolism to maintain
homeostatic body temperatures
A. Cooling by evaporation, such as sweating and panting
B. Warming by metabolism
1. muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat
2. shivering warms animals from the heat generated by muscle contractions
C. Behavioral, physiological, or anatomical adaptations that increase an animal's ability to survive
in a certain environment
1. hibernation
2. hair, feathers, blubber
3. staying in the shade
4. restrict activity to night
DIVERSITY, P. 2
Heterotrophs and Autotrophs - Page 106
A. Living systems require free energy and matter to maintain, grow, and reproduce
B. Energy deficiencies are detrimental to individual organisms and can also cause disruptions at the
population and ecosystem level
C. Heterotroph and Autotroph – Words that describe the two possible ways that organisms capture
and store free energy for use in biological processes; how cells can meet their energy needs
D. Heterotrophs
1. These organisms must "take in" nutrition
2.they capture free energy that is present in carbon compounds produced by other organisms
3. includes all animals, all fungi, and many protists and bacteria
E. Autotrophs
1. these organisms capture free energy from physical sources (simple inorganic substances)
in the environment and then make their own food (energy-rich organic molecule glucose)
2. Two different kinds of autotrophs
a. Photosynthetic autotrophs
1) organisms that capture free energy present in sunlight and use it for their
synthesis reactions to produce glucose (during photosynthesis)
2) includes plants and several types of protists and bacteria
b. Chemosynthetic autotrophs
1) organisms that capture free energy from small inorganic molecules (such
as sulfur or methane) present in their environment (this process can
occur in the absence of oxygen)
2) includes certain groups of bacteria
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes – Pages 56-59
A. Similarities between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
1. Both have an outer membrane, called the cell membrane or the plasma membrane
2. Both have DNA as their genetic material (the hereditary information) that directs a cell's
activities and enables it to reproduce, passing on its characteristics to its offspring
3. Both have cytoplasm - the fluid material inside the cell that contains the organelles
4. Both have a large variety of molecules in their cytoplasm
5. Both have ribosomes in their cytoplasm. The function of the ribosomes in both types of
cells is to assemble proteins
6. All prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the cell membrane, and some eukaryotes have a
cell wall outside the cell membrane
B. Differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
1. Prokaryotes
a. these cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells
b. the chromosome (DNA) is localized in a distinct region known as the
NUCLEOID, which is NOT surrounded by a membrane
c. they lack internal membranes and membrane-bound organelles; they only contain
one simple organelle - the ribosomes
d. prokaryotes belong to the either the Domain Bacteria or to the Domain Archaea
2. Eukaryotes
a. these cells are much larger than prokaryotic cells
b. the chromosomes are found in the nucleus, which is surrounded
by a double membrane, the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
c. they contain a variety of complex organelles
d. eukaryotes belong to the Domain Eukarya and to the Kingdoms Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia
DIVERSITY, P. 3
The following organisms are organized from
primitive to advanced
Domain Eukarya
KINGDOM PROTISTA - CH 22
I. Characteristics
A. Organisms in this kingdom may be plantlike, animallike, funguslike, unicellular, or multicellular
B. are eukaryotes
C. in many cases, the evolutionary relationships among the groups are weak, poorly understood or
both
D. They all live in an aqueous environment
II. Animal-like protists
A. Are heterotrophs - they consume either living cells (thus being predatory or parasitic) or dead
organic matter
B. all are unicellular
C. Major Examples
1. Trypanosoma
page 354
a) causes African sleeping sickness - it is transmitted by the tsetse fly
b) they propel themselves by twirling or lashing one or more hair-like flagella
2. Amoeba
page 366
a)have pseudopodia (extensions of their cell membrane), or false feet, for locomotion
b) they encircle their food and absorb it by phagocytosis
3. Plasmodium
p. 359
a) causes malaria
b) part of its life cycle is in mosquitoes and part in humans
c) all members are nonmotile and parasites of animals
4. Paramecium
page 356
a) they have cilia, which they use for moving
b) have specialized structures such as a mouth pore, gullet, and anal pore
c) has a contractile vacuole for osmoregulation (controlling the amount of water in
the organism)
II. Plantlike protists – The Stramenopiles
A. all obtain energy from photosynthesis - are photosynthetic autotrophs
B. all have chlorophyll a (which is a pigment molecule that captures sunlight)
C. Kinds of plantlike protists
1. Golden algae – the Chrysophytes
page 360
a) have the following pigments for photosyntheis: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c
carotenes, xanthophylls, fucoxanthins
b) are golden yellow
c) have one or two flagella used for movement
d) unicellular
2. Euglena
page 354
a) have one to three flagella (for movement) at their apical (leading) end
b) Are usually autotrophic, but can become heterotrophic in the absence of light
c) some have an eyespot, that permits phototaxis - the ability to move in response to
light
d) unicellular
DIVERSITY, P. 4
3. Dinoflagellates
page 358
a) have two flagella for movement
b) some are bioluminescent
c) unicellular
d) have chlorophylls a and c (pigments used in photosynthesis)
4. Diatoms
page 360
a) have shells that consist of silica
b) unicellular
5. Rhodophyta (red algae)
page 363
a) contain red accessory photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins
b) multicellular
6. Brown algae
page 361
a) some of these are extremely large - example - sea kelp (giant seaweed)
b) multicellular
c) have tissues that resemble roots and leaves
d) have air bladders to help them float
7. Green algae
page 364
a) have both chlorophyll a and b (photosynthetic pigments)
b) have cellulose cell walls
c) there are examples of trends toward multicellularity - some live as colonies of
cells
d) examples - sea lettuce, Volvox, Spirogyra
e) are believed to be the ancestors of plants
f) some have alternation of generations (see explanation in Plants)
KINGDOM FUNGI - CH 24
I. Characteristics
A. grow as filaments called hyphae (singular, hypha)
B. a mass of hyphae is called mycelium (plural, mycelia)
C. some fungi have septa (singular, septum), or cross walls, which divide the filament into
compartments containing a single nucleus
D. Cell walls of fungi contain chitin - a polysaccharide
E. Are either parasites or saprobes
F. Many parasitic fungi have hyphae called haustoria that penetrate their host
II. Lichens
1. mutualistic associations between fungi and algae
2. the algae provides sugar from photosynthesis
3. the fungus provides water and protection from the environment
III. Mycorrhizae
1. mutualistic associations between fungi and the roots of plants
2. the plant provides sugars from photosynthesis
3. the fungus increases the ability of the roots to absorb water and minerals, especially
phosphorus
DIVERSITY, P. 5
OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL KINGDOM
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL ANIMALS
A. multicellular heterotrophs
B. principal mode of nutrition is ingestion
1. digest food in internal cavity
2. store food reserves as glycogen or fat
C. develop in a series of stages
II. SYMMETRY
page 406
A. Radial symmetry
1. The regular arrangement of parts around a central axis such that any plant passing through
the central axis divides the organism into halve that are approximate mirror images
2. Found in Cnidarians (Coelenterata) and adult echinoderms
B. Bilateral symmetry
1. A body form in which the right and left halves of an organism are approximate mirror
images of each other
2. Top of organism = dorsal
Bottom of organism = ventral
"Head" end = anterior
"Tail" end = posterior
III. CEPHALIZATION = the concentration of sensory and nerve cells and of structures associated with
feeding at the anterior end of an animal
IV. DIPLOBLASTIC VS. TRIPLOBLASTIC
page 593
A. Diploblastic - Have only 2 embryonic tissues (also called germ layers) - ectoderm and endoderm
1. ectoderm - gives rise to covering tissues, lining tissues, nerve tissues
2. endoderm - gives rise to digestive structures
B. Triploblastic
1. these organisms have a third embryonic tissue (mesoderm) in addition to the other two
2. mesoderm - gives rise to muscles and most other parts of the body
C. Three groups of Triploblastic Animals - based upon the presence or absence of a body cavity
(called a coelom) in addition to the digestive cavity
1. Acoelomates
a. is the simplest arrangement
b. Tissues derives from the 3 germ layers are packed together and there is no body
cavity other than the digestive cavity
c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms, planaria, tapeworms)
2. Pseudocoelomates
a. Have an additional cavity (the pseudocoelom) that develops BETWEEN the
endoderm and the mesoderm
b. Phylum Nematoda (roundworms)
3. Coelomates
a. Have a fluid-filled cavity that develops WITHIN the mesoderm
b. Within the coelom, the digestive tract and other internal organs are suspended by
double layers of mesoderm called mesenteries
c. Phlya Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata
d. Are put into one of two groups - Protostomes or Deuterostomes
D. Fig. 25-6 page 406 and Fig. 25.7 page 407
Important Diagrams!
DIVERSITY, P. 6
ANIMAL PHYLA
LISTED FROM LEAST EVOLUTIONARILY ADVANCED TO MOST
EVOLUTIONARILY ADVANCED
VI. PHYLUM PORIFERA
page 408
A. aquatic invertebrates called the sponges
B. Have no digestive system: They are Filter Feeders
1. feed by filtering water drawn through the pore cells in the sponge wall by flagellated cells
called choanocytes (collar cells)
2. Water exits through an opening called the osculum
3. Choanocytes pass the food to amoebocytes, which wander between the two cells layers of
the sponge wall, digesting and distributing nutrients.
C. Sponge wall contains spicules, skeletal needles made from CaCO3 or SiO2. These deter predators
and provide structural support for the sponge
D. Have no organs or tissues; Since the cells of the Porifera are not organized in a coordinated
fashion to form tissues, they are classified as parazoa
E. have no defined respiratory system, but they perform gas exchange by diffusion – directly
between environment and the cells of the sponge
F. have no defined circulatory system (to transport nutrients, O2, and CO2 around the organism’s
body), but molecules enter and exit the organism by diffusion directly with the outside
environment
G. have no defined nervous system (sending and receiving signals), but there are a few chemical
signals that get sent from cell to cell
H. excretory system: get rid of ammonia and other wastes by diffusion thru the surface of the body
I. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
J. are invertebrates, asymmetrical, ectothermic, diploblastic
VII. PHYLUM CNIDARIA (used to be called Coelenterata)
page 410
A. aquatic invertebrates that include the jellyfish, sea anemones, corals and hydras
B. there are two body forms
1. medusa
a. a floating, umbrella-shaped body with dangling tentacles typical of jellyfish
b. much like an upside down polyp
2. polyp - a sessile, cylinder-shaped body with rising tentacles typical of a sea anemone
C. have tissues, but no organs
D. Nematocysts – cells that shoot out barbed, hair-like projections with poisonous tips - used for
food collection and protection
E. Have a simple nervous system - Have a nerve net capable of sending signals
F. Digestive system consists of a Gastrovascular cavity that only has one opening (food goes in and
wastes go out the same opening)
G. Have no defined respiratory system, but they perform gas exchange by diffusion – directly
between environment and the cells of the sponge
H. Have no defined circulatory system (to transport nutrients, O2, and CO2 around the organism’s
body), but molecules enter and exit the organism by diffusion directly with the outside
environment
I. Have a Mesoglea, a poorly developed third layer, is between the endoderm & ectoderm
J. excretory system: get rid of ammonia and other wastes by diffusion thru the surface of the body
K. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
L. invertebrates, radial symmetry, ectothermic, diploblastic
DIVERSITY, P. 7
VIII. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
page 412
A. aquatic invertebrate group that consists of 3 kinds of flatworms - free-living flatworms, flukes,
and tapeworms
B. Free-living flatworms (not parasites)
1. example - planaria
2. excretory system = have flame cells - regulate the contents of the interstitial fluid directly
3. carnivores or scavengers that live in marine or freshwater
4. digestive system = one opening in their gastrovascular cavity
C. Flukes
1. internal or external animal parasites that suck tissue fluids or blood
2. an example is schistosome, which causes schistosomiasis
a. the adult worm enters a person's skin and digests its way into a blood vessel
b. eventually, it finds it way to the tiny blood vessels of the intestine and lays its eggs
c. the eggs grow and hatch, breaking the blood vessel
d. causes cough, body pains, and a rash, the host is weakened - possibly dies
e. eggs exit the person (thru poop), larva develop in snails, then eat the snail
f. they leave the snail, then swim out to attack the next person wading in the water
D. Tapeworms
1. internal parasites that often live in the digestive tract of vertebrates - absorbs the nutrients
that surround it
2. they do not have a digestive tract themselves
3. its head, the scolex, has suckers and hooks to hold onto intestine of host
E. Have no defined respiratory system, but they perform gas exchange by diffusion – directly
between environment and the cells of the sponge
F. Have no defined circulatory system (to transport nutrients, O2, and CO2 around the body), but
molecules enter and exit the organism by diffusion directly with the outside environment
G. Nervous System: there is a hint of cephalization (the gathering of nerve cells near the head).
They have 2 ganglia (conglomeration of nerve cells) and sensory receptors at the anterior
end, and 2 nerve cords that run the length of the body
H. excretory system: get rid of ammonia and other wastes by diffusion thru the surface of the body
I. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
J. invertebrates, bilateral symmetry, ectothermic, triploblastic, acoelomate
IX. PHYLUM NEMATODA (Roundworms)
page 419
B. pseudocoelomates with a complete digestive tract - mouth and anus (two openings – one for food
and one for digestive wastes), and organs that digest the food
C. Many are free-living (not parasites) soil dwellers that help decompose and recycle nutrients
D. Some are parasitic
1.Trichina (Trichinella), causes trichinosis in humans when improperly cooked pork is
eaten. Forms cysts in the host's muscle tissue that cause great pain
2. Hookworms
3. Ascaris - intestinal parasite
4. Filarial worms. - can block a person's lymph system or get into their eye
F. Have no defined circulatory system (to transport nutrients, O2, and CO2 around the organism’s
body), but molecules enter and exit the organism by diffusion directly with the outside
environment
G. Nervous system: Cephalization is a bit more defined – have 4 ganglia at the anterior end with 6
nerve cords that travel the length of the body
H. excretory system: get rid of ammonia and other wastes by diffusion thru the surface of the body
I. Have no defined respiratory system, but they perform gas exchange by diffusion – directly
between environment and the cells of the sponge
J. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
K. invertebrates, bilateral symmetry, ectothermic, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate
DIVERSITY, P. 8
X. PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
page 418
A. aquatic invertebrates that include the snails, bivalves (clams and oysters), octopuses, and squids
B. Physical features of all mollusca
1. ventral foot
2. visceral mass - contains the organs
3. mantle - covers the visceral mass and secretes the shell if the animal has one
- often encloses the gills as well
C. most have an open circulatory system (the blood is not in blood vessels), except octupi and squid
D. Class Gastropoda
1. snails and nudibranchs (live in ocean, some brightly colored)
2. some have shells, some don't
3. Have a few ganglia and nerve cords
E. Class Bivalvia
1. clams and mussels
2. have a shell that has two parts
3. Have a few ganglia and nerve cords
F. Class Cephalopoda
1. have well developed eyes similar to humans
2. nervous system is specialized for rapid, coordinated motion necessary to catch prey
3. Squids
a. the shell is reduced, is internal and cartilaginous
b. have a well-developed nervous system – brain and nerve cords
4. Octopus
a. shell is absent
b. have highly developed nervous system with large complex brain and nerve cords
G. Have coelomate bodies with a complete digestive tract – mouth, anus, and digestive organs
H. Respiratory system: gas exchange occurs in the gills
I. Excretory system: Have a pair of organs called nephridia (tubules)that collect fluids from the
coelom and exchange salts, wastes, etc with body tissues as the fluid passes along the tubules.
The nephridia empty wastes into the mantle cavity, which then empties into the environment
J. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
K. invertebrates, bilateral symmetry, ectothermic, triploblastic, coelomate, protostome
XII. PHYLUM ANNELIDA
page 414
A. are segmented worms; include the leeches, earthworms, and polychaete worms
B. have a well developed digestive system - pharynx draws food into mouth, then esophagus, crop
(storage area), and to muscular gizzard where it is ground. Then to intestine, where it is
absorbed. Undigested food leaves through anus
D. Respiratory system: exchange gases through their skin or through gill-like extensions on each
segment
E. have a closed circulatory system - blood is confined to blood vessels at all times
F. excretory system = nephridia
Each segment has its own nephridia, which takes wastes from inside the organism and
dumps them directly into the environment
G. Nervous system: have an enlarged front ganglion (a brain) that is linked by a parallel, doublenerve cord to a pair of ganglia on the floor of each segment, which controls their complex
muscle arrangements in each segment
H. have bristly setae on each segment to help in movement
K. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
L. invertebrates, bilateral symmetry, ectothermic, triploblastic, coelomate, protostome
DIVERSITY, P. 9
XIII. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
pages 420-427
A. has the greatest number of species of any phylum
B. includes Class Arachnida (spiders, scorpions); Class Insecta – insects such as fly, ant, termite,
lady bug, butterflies, butterflies, crickets, roaches, moths, dragonfly, grasshopper, beetles,
bees, wasps; Crustaceans (pillbugs, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, ); millipedes; and
centipedes
C. have jointed appendages and an exoskeleton made of chitin
D. Respiratory system
1. Spiders - have book lungs - a chitin-lined chamber containing a series of leaf -like plates
for gas exchange. They draw air into and out of the chamber by muscle action
2. Millipedes, centipedes, and insects - gas exchange through a trachael system
E. Excretory System
1. Excretion in insects – wastes are converted to uric acid, which becomes a solid because it
it insoluble in water. Their wastes are excreted as a solid, which conserves water
2. aquatic arthropods get rid of ammonia and other wastes by diffusion thru the surface of
the body; terrestrial forms convert ammonia to uric acid before getting rid of it
3. Millipedes, centipedes, and insects - have Malpighian tubules for excretion
F. Nervous system:
1. have an enlarged front ganglion (a brain) that is linked by a parallel, double nerve cord to
a pair of ganglia on the floor of each segment, which controls their complex muscle
arrangements in each segment
2. have compound eyes
3. many have antennae to collect sensory information about their environment and send the
info to the brain
G. Have an open circulatory system
H. Two kinds of life cycles among the arthropods
1. Incomplete metamorphosis
a. are born as nymphs - small versions of the adult
b. change shape gradually as they grow to adult size and proportions
2. Complete metamorphosis
a. are born as larvae - maggots specialized for eating
b. when they reach a certain size, they enclose themselves within a pupa (cocoon)
and undergo a dramatic change in body form
c. they emerge from their pupae as adults, specialized for dispersal and reproduction
I. are able to communicate or attract using air-borne hormones called pheromones
J. Many of the different groups have modified mouth parts - chewing, stinging, biting, fangs,
pinchers, feelers, tasters, holding, piercing, sucking
K. Specialization of body segments - many have more than one body segment
1. cephalothorax and abdomen
2. head, thorax, abdomen
L. Insects digestion – Have a complete digestive system - food into esophagus, then into crop
(storage), then to gizzard where it is ground, then to stomach where it is absorbed.
Undigested material passes into intestine and eliminated thru anus
M. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
N. invertebrates, bilateral symmetry, ectothermic, triploblastic, coelomate, protostome
DIVERSITY, P. 10
XIV. PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
page 428
A. includes the sea stars, sea urchins, anemone (the spiny ones, not the soft ones) and sand dollars
B. coelomate deuterostomes that usually have a complete digestive tract
C. adult echinoderms have bodies with five-fold radial symmetry, some features are bilateral, as are
the body shapes of their larvae
F. Starfish
2. mouth is under the central disk, and its anus is on top
3. each arm has digestive glands and gonads
4. ring of nerve tissue around the disk that sends nerves into each arm
6. each arm is able to be the head and ends in an eyespot
7. water vascular system – used in movement, in capturing/ingesting food, for excretion, and
for the respiratory system (gas exchange)
a. series of canals in each arm connected to a ring canal in disk
b. starfish is able to exert pressure or suction on the canals
c. each canal ends in rows of tube feet that line the bottom of each arm
d. tube feet can extend & wave around, or attach to things by suction
G. Have no heart, circulatory system, brain, or eyes
G. have multiple, nonspecific immune responses, but they lack pathogen-specific defense responses
H. invertebrates, ectothermic, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
XV. PHYLUM CHORDATA
Ch. 26
A. Consists of animals that exhibit the following four main features. (In many cases, these features
are temporary, appearing only during embryonic development)
1. notochord
a. a dorsal, flexible rod that functions as a support
b. in most chordates, is replaced by bone during development
2. dorsal hollow nerve cord
a. forms the basis of the nervous system – all chordates have a well-developed
nervous system with a brain and many nerves
b. In some, the nerve cord becomes the brain and spinal cord
3. Pharyngeal gill slits
a. provide channels across the pharynx (a muscular structure at the beginning of the
digestive tract) to the outside of the body
b. In some chordates, the slits become gills for oxygen exchange or filter feeding,
while in others, the slits disappear during embryonic development
4. Muscular tail
a. extends beyond the digestive tract
b. in many chordates, such as humans, the tail is lost during embryonic development
5. Digestive system
all chordates have a complete digestive system, with a mouth, anus, stomach and
other specialized organs that digest the food and absorb the nutrients
B. bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
C. Three subphyla
1. Tunicata
2. Cephalochordata
3. Vertebrata
D. Subphylum Tunicata (or Urochordata)
E. Subphylum Cephalochordata
DIVERSITY, P. 11
F.
Subphylum Vertebrata (The Vertebrates)
1. Class Agnatha
a. jawless fish who have no fins
b. example = lamprey
1) eel-like fish that has, in the place of jaws, a sucker lined inside with teeth
2) attaches itself to its prey by suction then bores into its prey's body
c. example = ostracoderms - heavily armored fish
d. respiratory system - gills
e. closed circulatory system – blood is in blood vessels; heart has 2 chambers
f. excretory system = kidney
g. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
h. ectothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
2. Class Chondrichthyes
a. fish with cartilaginous skeletons, such as sharks, rays, skates
b. have paired appendages (fins)
c. internal gills for respiration (gas exchange)
d. closed circulatory system – blood is in blood vessels; heart has 2 chambers
e. excretory system = kidney
f. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
g. ectothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
3. Class Osteichthyes
a. fish with bony skeletons – goldfish, perch, salmon, etc
b. have a swim bladder – helps the fish control its buoyancy and its upright position
c. land animals developed from the lungfish – a fish that has both gills and lungs
d. have paired appendages (fins)
e. osmoregulation
1) fish constantly lose water to their environment by osmosis
2) they compensate by drinking large amounts of seawater then pumping out
excess salts, and excreting urine in relatively small quantities
f. internal gills for gas exchange
g. closed circulatory system – blood is in blood vessels; heart has 2 chambers
h. excretory system = kidney
i. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
j. ectothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
4. Class Amphibia
a. salamanders, toads, and frogs
b. lay fish-like eggs in water with no amnion (a thin, tough, membranous sac) and
fertilizes the eggs externally like most fish
c. larval stage is fishlike, and after a metamorphosis, their adult stage is somewhat
adapted to land – the amphibian must stay close to water to moisten its skin
and to lays its eggs
d. gas exchange – lungs (as adults) and gills (before metamorphosis)
e. closed circulatory system – blood in blood vessels; 3 chambered heart - 2 atria and
1 ventricle
f. excretion – kidneys
g. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
h. ectothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
DIVERSITY, P. 12
5. Class Reptilia
a. turtles, crocodiles, alligators, snakes, lizards, tuatara
b. are completely adapted to living out of the water
1) internal fertilization
2) water proof skin
3) better bone structure to resist gravity
4) stronger legs for holding animal off the ground
5) amniotic egg – the egg has an amnion and a shell – it’s waterproof
c. gas exchange – lungs
d. closed circulatory system – blood in blood vessels; 3 chambered heart - though the
ventricle is almost separated totally by a septum
Crocodiles have 4 chambers in their heart
e. excretion – kidneys
f. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
g. ectothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
6. Class Aves
a. birds – like penguins!  
b. feathers - unique feature; light, good insulators; make the bird aerodynamic
c. their lungs are open at both ends - the air goes thru the bird's lungs into air sacs in
its body and then back thru the lungs
d. air sacs also help to streamline the body
e highly developed senses, especially visual
f. lay amniotic eggs
g. gas exchange - lungs
h. closed circulatory system – blood in blood vessels; 4 chambered heart - complete
division in ventricle
i. excretion – kidneys
j. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
k. endothermic, bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome
7. Class Mammalia
a. produce milk from mammary glands
b. covered with hair (for insulation)
c. have larger brains
d. have an amnion – sometimes with the egg; sometimes with the fetus in the uterus
e. Three groups
1) Monotremes - the egg layers
examples - duck billed platypus and spiny anteater
2) Marsupials - the pouched mammals
a) examples - kangaroos, koalas
b) babies are born in an immature state and must climb from the
vagina to the pouch on their own, find a nipple, and stay there
while they complete their development
3) Placentals
a) examples - monkeys, rats, humans, cats, dogs, dolphins
b) their young stay in the uterus until they are well developed
f. gas exchange - lungs
g. closed circulatory system – blood in blood vessels; 4 chambered heart
h. excretion – kidney
i. have multiple, nonspecific immune response AND have specific, inheritable
defense mechanisms against pathogens
j. endothermic , bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome