Download ЯБЛОНСКАЯ М.И., БЯХОВА В.М. Под редакцией заведующей

ЯБЛОНСКАЯ М.И., БЯХОВА В.М.
Под редакцией заведующей кафедрой иностранных
языков аграрного факультета
профессора Нотиной Е. А.
PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Английский язык
Москва
Издательство Российского Университета Дружбы Народов
2013
Утверждено
РИС Ученого совета
Российского университета
дружбы народов
Яблонская М.И., Бяхова В.М. Plant classification.
Английский язык: Учебное пособие. - М.: Изд-во РУДН, 2013.67c.
Под редакцией заведующей кафедрой иностранных языков
аграрного факультета РУДН профессора Нотиной Е. А.
Пособие составлено в соответствии с программой кафедры
иностранных языков аграрного факультета по иностранным
языкам.
Пособие состоит из 10 разделов. Каждый раздел включает
в себя оригинальные научные тексты по специальности и учебные
задания,
направленные
на
закрепление
специальной
терминологической лексики, развитие навыков перевода
с
английского на русский и с русского на английский языки, а также
послетекстовые
лексико – грамматические упражнения.
Предназначено для студентов младших курсов
аграрного
факультета по специальностям: агрономия, садово – парковое
ландшафтное строительство, ландшафтная архитектура.
Подготовлено на кафедре иностранных языков аграрного
факультета РУДН.
© Яблонская М.И., Бяхова В.М, 2013
© Издательство Российского университета дружбы
народов, 2013
1
INTRODUCTION
Plants are essential to the balance of nature and in people's
lives. Green plants, i.e., those possessing chlorophyll, manufacture
their own food and give off oxygen in the process called
photosynthesis, in which water and carbon dioxide are combined by
the energy of light. Plants are the ultimate source of food and metabolic
energy for nearly all animals, which cannot manufacture their own
food. Besides foods (e.g., grains, fruits, and vegetables), plant products
vital to humans include wood and wood products, fibers, drugs, oils,
latex, pigments, and resins. Coal and petroleum are fossil substances
of plant origin. Thus, plants provide people not only sustenance but
also shelter, clothing, medicines, fuels, and the raw materials from
which innumerable other products are made.
Unit I.
LIFE CYCLE CLASSIFICATION
Plants are classified by life cycle (e.g., how long it takes a plant
to develop from a seed to a flowering plant).
Annuals are plants that grow, mature, flower, produce seed,
and die all in one season. Zinnias are annual plants. They complete
their life cycle in one year. However, the growing season may be from
fall to summer, not just from spring to fall. These plants come back
from seeds only.
Biennials take two years or a part of two years to complete
their life cycle. During the first season, biennials grow as a vegetative
plant that overwinters as a hardy rosette of basal leaves. During the
second season, the plant flowers, produces seeds, and then dies.
Parsley is an example of a biennial plant. In the garden setting, we
2
grow many biennials as annuals (e.g., carrots, onions, and beets)
because we are more interested in the root than the bloom.
Perennials live for more than 2 years. Herbaceous perennials
have soft, non-woody stems while woody perennials have woody
stems. Woody perennials can either keep their leaves through the winter
(evergreen) or lose them and grow new leaves in the spring
(deciduous). Semi-evergreen perennials refer to plants that may retain
their leaves, depending on the winter temperature and moisture.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Cycle, annual, mature, complete, vegetative, grow, season, zinnia,
overwinter, rosette, basal, parsley, bloom, root, perennial, biennial,
herbaceous, deciduous, moisture, temperature, medicine.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. What is an annual plant?
2. What is a biennial plant?
3. What is a perennial plant?
4. Are carrots and beets annuals or biennials?
5. What perennials have soft, non-woody stems?
6. What plants lose leaves in the winter and grow new ones in the
spring?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Annuals are plants that grow, mature, flower, produce seed, and
die all in two years.
2. Woody perennials have soft, non-woody stems while
herbaceous perennials have woody stems.
3. Green plants, i.e., those possessing chlorophyll, manufacture
their own food and give off nitrogen in the process called
photosynthesis, in which water and carbon dioxide are
combined by the energy of light.
3
4. In the garden setting, we grow many biennials as annuals (e.g.,
carrots, onions, and beets) because we are more interested in
the root than the bloom.
Ex.5. Complete the following statements.
1. _____ take two years or a part of two years to complete their
life cycle.
2. Parsley is an example of a _____ plant.
3. _____ are plants that grow, mature, flower, produce seed, and
die all in one season.
4. _____ woody perennials can either keep their leaves through
the winter.
5. Green plants, i.e., those possessing chlorophyll, manufacture
their own food and give off oxygen in the process called _____,
in which water and carbon dioxide are combined by the energy
of light.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Woody perennials can either keep their leaves through the
winter (evergreen) or lose them and grow new leaves in the
spring (deciduous).
2. Green plants, i.e., those possessing chlorophyll, manufacture
their own food and give off oxygen in the process called
photosynthesis, in which water and carbon dioxide are
combined by the energy of light.
3. In the garden setting, we grow many biennials as annuals (e.g.,
carrots, onions, and beets) because we are more interested in
the root than the bloom.
4. Besides foods (e.g., grains, fruits, and vegetables), plant
products vital to humans include wood and wood products,
fibers, drugs, oils, latex, pigments, and resins.
5. However, the growing season may be from fall to summer, not
just from spring to fall.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. Plants are the ultimate __ source __ food and metabolic energy
__ nearly all animals, which cannot manufacture their own
food.
4
2. Semi-evergreen perennials refer __ plants that may retain their
leaves, depending __ the winter temperature and moisture.
3. Plants are classified __ life cycle (e.g., how long it takes a plant
to develop __ a seed __ a flowering plant).
4. Annuals are plants __ that grow, mature, flower, produce seed,
and die all __ one season.
5. During the first season, biennials grow as a vegetative __ plant
that overwinters as a hardy rosette __ basal leaves.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Photosynthesis, woody, innumerable, flowering, basal, non-woody,
depending, moisture.
Ex.9. Give examples of





Annuals
Biennials
Herbaceous perennials
Woody evergreen perennials
Woody deciduous perennial plants
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Растения широко используются человеком как пища и
корм для животных, как источник сырья для
хозяйственной деятельности, как лекарственные средства.
2. Все растения можно разделить на три большие группы:
однолетники,
двулетники
и
многолетники.
К
однолетникам относятся те растения, которые за один
вегетационный период успевают вырасти, зацвести и дать
семена. Осенью эти растения отмирают. Все однолетние
растения размножаются семенами. Двулетники зацветают
на второй год после посадки семян, дают семена и осенью
отмирают. К многолетникам относят те травянистые
растения, которые живут более двух лет.
5
Unit II.
PLANT CLASSIFICATION
A thorough understanding of botany is necessary to understand
the other plant sciences. We need botanical knowledge in order to use
correct terminology when referring to plant parts and plant
identification and to understand why and how plants live, grow, and
respond to their environment.
Plant classification and the scientific naming of plants help us
identify plants exactly. The plant classification system groups plants
with similar characteristics together and then creates sub-groups with
more similar characteristics. This process continues until a single plant
with unique characteristics is named.
Plant Groups and Sub-Groups:
1. Kingdom (plants)
2. Division (seed plants, non-seed plants)
3. Sub-divisions (angiosperms, gymnosperms)
4. Class (monocot, dicot)
5. Order (a large group of like individuals)
6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species
9. Variety or cultivar
Master Gardeners usually work with the classification of plants
at the family level and below. The common names of plants are often
not precise enough to identify them exactly. Sometimes a common
name refers to two or more entirely different plants. Only scientific
nomenclature allows an exact understanding of which plant is being
discussed.
In a family of plants, similarities occur primarily among its
members’ flowers but also leaves and other plant parts. For example,
the rose family, Rosaceae, includes members of the genera Rosa (rose),
Malus (apple), Prunus (plum), Frageria (strawberry), and many others.
They all have similar flowers with five petals and many stamens. Some
other large families are Asteraceae (sunflowers), Ranunculaceae
(buttercup), Poaceae (grasses), and Fabaceae (pea and bean family).
6
Genus is a subdivision of family and the plants of the same
genus share similarities mostly in flower characteristics and genetics.
Plants in one genus usually cannot breed with plants in another genus.
Species is a group of individual plants interbreeding freely and
having many (or all) characteristics in common.
Variety is a plant growing in the wild within a species that is
different in some particular characteristic from other members of that
species. A variety, when grown from seed, will maintain all of its
particular characteristics.
The word “cultivar” is a contraction of cultivated variety.
Propagation of cultivars results in little or no genetic change in the
offspring, which preserves desirable characteristics. If propagated
asexually or vegetatively, cultivars are termed clones, and if propagated
by seeds they are termed lines. Seeds of clones will not produce plants
with the same desirable characteristics as the cultivar. Cultivars are
generally selected by botanists and horticulturists and maintained under
cultivation.
A hybrid results from a cross between two different species or
well-marked varieties within a species. Hybrids grown in a garden
situation will not breed true-to-form from their own seed. For example,
supersweet hybrid corn cannot be reproduced by saving seed from this
year’s crop. The seed will produce a different type or several different
types of corn, but none will have all the characteristics of the original
hybrid plants.
As an example, the complete classification of the Black
Chokecherry is:
Kingdom: Planta
Division: Spermotophyta
Sub-division: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotoledonae
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Genus: Prunus
Species: virginiana
Variety: melanocarpa
The genus, species, and variety names appear either in italics
or underlined. The first letter of the genus name is capitalized; but the
species and variety are written in all lower case letters.
7
A binomial name is a plant’s genus and species and may be
followed by the initial of the authority for describing and naming the
plant. For example, Solanum tuberosum L. indicates that Linnaeus, a
Swedish physician, described and named the white (Irish) potato.
Linnaeus proposed a system of nomenclature for plants in 1732 based
primarily on flowers and reproductive parts. This system has persisted
to the present day.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Innumerable, particular, physician, terminology, original, chlorophyll,
propose, characteristic, species, cultivar, genus, horticulturist, essential,
knowledge, identification, unique, similar, nomenclature, primarily,
subdivision, thorough, wild, vegetatively, desirable, genera,
photosynthesis, identify, hybrid, complete, authority, reproductive,
clone.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. Why do we need botanical knowledge?
2. What are the main plant classification groups and sub-groups?
3. What similarities occur in a plant family?
4. What plant classification do Master Gardeners usually work
with?
5. What is the difference between a variety and a cultivar?
6. What is called a clone?
7. What is called a line?
8. What is a hybrid?
9. Will a hybrid seed produce a plant with the same characteristics
as the hybrid?
10. How are the genus, species, and variety names written?
11. What system did Linnaeus propose? Has this system persisted
to the present day?
8
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Only common name allows an exact understanding of which
plant is being discussed.
2. Plants in one genus usually cannot breed with plants in another
genus.
3. A cultivar, when grown from seed, will maintain all of its
particular characteristics.
4. The first letters of the species and variety names are
capitalized; but the genus name is written in all lower case
letters.
5. A binomial name is a plant’s class and order and may be
followed by the initial of the authority for describing and
naming the plant.
Ex.5. Match the term with its description.
1) Line
a. A subdivision of family. Plants of the group share
similarities mostly in flower characteristics and
genetics.
2) Cultivar
b. A plant growing in the wild within a species that is
different in some particular characteristic from
other members of that species.
3) Variety
c. A cultivar propagated asexually or vegetatively.
4) Species
d. A result from a cross between two different species
or well-marked varieties within a species.
5) Genus
e. Its propagation results in little or no genetic change
in the offspring.
6) Clone
f.
7) Hybrid
g. A group of individual plants interbreeding freely
and having many (or all) characteristics in common.
A cultivar propagated by seeds.
9
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Only scientific nomenclature allows an exact understanding of
which plant is being discussed.
2. If propagated asexually or vegetatively, cultivars are termed
clones, and if propagated by seeds they are termed lines.
3. For example, supersweet hybrid corn cannot be reproduced by
saving seed from this year’s crop.
4. A binomial name is a plant’s genus and species and may be
followed by the initial of the authority for describing and
naming the plant.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
6. Propagation __ cultivars results __ little or no genetic change
__ the offspring, which preserves desirable characteristics.
7. Master Gardeners usually work __ the classification __ plants
__ the family level and __.
8. This process continues __ a single plant __ unique
characteristics is named.
9. A binomial __ name is a plant’s genus and species and may be
followed __ the initial __ the authority __ describing and
naming the plant.
10. Variety is a plant growing __ the wild __ a species that is
different __ some particular characteristic __ other members __
that species.
11. Cultivars are generally __ selected __ botanists and
horticulturists and maintained __ cultivation.
12. Linnaeus proposed a system __ nomenclature __ plants __ 1732
based primarily __ flowers and reproductive parts.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Classification, scientific, interbreeding, freely, vegetatively, cultivation,
supersweet, original, reproductive, botanist, medicine, kingdom.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Potato
4. Cucumber
2. Strawberry
5. Cherry
3. Apple
6. Tomato
10
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Ботаника – это наука о растениях. Ее задача – всестороннее
познание растений: их строения, жизненных функций,
распространения, происхождения, эволюции.
2. Главная задача ботанической номенклатуры – каждый
таксон должен иметь только одно название. Основными
таксономическими категориями считаются: вид, род,
семейство, порядок, класс, отдел и царство. Внутри вида
могут быть выделены более мелкие систематические
единицы: подвид, разновидность, форма. Для культурных
растений употребляется еще один таксон – сорт.
Unit III.
BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF
NAMING SPECIES
Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish
botanist who lived from 1707 to 1778,
introduced
the
hierarchical
classification system. In addition to
that, he gave each and every species a
scientific name in Latin. The binomial
system of naming species means
giving organisms two names in Latin
(scientific names). The term binomial
literally means two names – ‘bi’ means
two and ‘nomial’ means name.
Linnaeus derived scientific names from
the genus and the species to which
organisms belong.
Prior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming
species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name combined with a
11
specific name that was from one to several words long. Together they
formed a system of polynomial nomenclature. These names had two
separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second,
to be a diagnosis or description; however these two goals were
eventually found to be incompatible. In a simple genus, containing only
two species, it was easy to tell them apart with a one-word genus and a
one-word specific name; but as more species were discovered the
names necessarily became longer and unwieldy, for instance Plantago
foliis ovato-lanceolatus pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti
(Plantain with pubescent ovate-lanceolate leaves, a cylindric spike and
a terete scape), which we know today as Plantago media.
The Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), took
some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the
Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by
biologists of a system of strictly binomial nomenclature is due to Carl
Linnaeus. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began
consistently using a one-word "trivial name" together with a generic
name in a system of binomial nomenclature. Bauhins' genus names
were retained in many of these, but the descriptive part was reduced to
a single word.
Linnaeus's trivial names introduced an important new idea,
namely that the function of a name could simply be to give a species a
unique label. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive;
for example both parts could be derived from the names of people.
Thus Gerard's phalangium ephemerum virginianum became
Tradescantia virginiana, where the genus name honoured John
Tradescant the younger, an English botanist and gardener. Linnaeus'
trivial names were much easier to remember and use than the parallel
polynomial names and eventually replaced them.
When writing a scientific name, the genus name is written first
and starts with a capital letter, and the species name is written second
and starts with a small letter. The scientific name ought to be printed in
italics when typed and underlined separately when handwritten.
Scientific names of plants are also Latinized. When Linnaeus
published the first books on classification, Latin was used in Western
Europe as the language of science. Linnaeus continued this trend using
Latin and Greek names. Latin was the language of Latium (an area of
ancient Italy) and Ancient Rome. French, Spanish and Italian languages
inherited a large part of their vocabulary and grammar from Latin.
12
Latin is still a part of science, medicine, law, and philosophy.
Today, Latin has the advantage that it provides lingual neutrality
between countries and languages.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Swedish, advantage, separately, science, lingual, hierarchical, Latin,
literally, belong, binomial, Greek, inherit, language, ancient,
vocabulary, neutrality, term, species, organism, genus, provide, generic,
polynomial, separate, reduce, single, description, unique, parallel,
replace.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. What is Carl Linnaeus famous for?
2. What does the binomial system of naming species mean?
3. How is a scientific name written?
4. Why are scientific names of plants Latinized?
5. What languages inherited a large part of their vocabulary and
grammar from Latin?
6. What advantage does Latin have today?
7. What is polynomial nomenclature?
8. What did Caspar Bauhin do?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Carl Linnaeus gave each and every species a scientific name in
Greek.
2. Binomial system of naming species means giving organisms
three names in Latin.
3. The genus name is written first and starts with a small letter,
and the species name is written second and starts with a capital
letter.
13
4. Linnaeus' trivial names were much easier to remember and use
than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced
them.
5. Latin is still a part of science, medicine, law, and philosophy.
6. The scientific name ought to be printed in italics when
handwritten and underlined separately when typed.
7. Prior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming
species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name
combined with a specific name that was two words long.
Ex.5. Complete the following statements.
1. Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish _____ who lived from 1707 to 1778,
introduced the hierarchical classification system.
2. The binomial system of naming species means giving
organisms two names in _____.
3. The Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), took
some important steps towards the _____ system, by pruning the
Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words.
4. The adoption by biologists of a system of strictly binomial
nomenclature is due to _____ _____.
5. When writing a scientific name, the genus name is written first
and starts with a _____ letter, and the species name is written
second and starts with a ____ letter.
6. Today, Latin has the advantage that it provides lingual _____
between countries and languages.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. The scientific name ought to be printed in italics when typed
and underlined separately when handwritten.
2. The binomial system of naming species means giving
organisms two names in Latin (scientific names).
3. Linnaeus continued this trend using Latin and Greek names.
4. When Linnaeus published the first books on classification,
Latin was used in Western Europe as the language of science.
5. When writing a scientific name, the genus name is written first
and starts with a capital letter, and the species name is written
second and starts with a small letter.
6. Scientific names of plants are also Latinized.
14
7. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a
diagnosis or description; however these two goals were
eventually found to be incompatible.
8. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive; for
example both parts could be derived from the names of people.
9. Linnaeus' trivial names were much easier to remember and use
than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced
them.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. The scientific name ought to be printed __ italics when typed
and underlined __ separately when handwritten.
2. French, Spanish and Italian languages inherited a large part __
their vocabulary and grammar __ Latin.
3. Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who lived __ 1707 __ 1778,
introduced the hierarchical classification system.
4. When Linnaeus published the first books __ classification,
Latin was used __ Western Europe as the language __ science.
5. __ addition __ that, he gave each and every species a scientific
name __ Latin.
6. Today, Latin has the advantage that it provides __ lingual
neutrality __ countries and languages.
7. When writing a scientific name, the genus name is written first
and starts __ a capital letter, and the species name is written
second and starts __ a small letter.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Underlined, separately, neutrality, scientific, giving, addition,
handwritten, botanist, adoption, necessarily, longer, incompatible.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Pear
2. Water melon
3. Plum
15
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Научные названия всех таксонов состоят из одного
латинского слова, а название вида – из двух. Правило
давать видам двойные названия – бинарная номенклатура,
введено К.Линнеем в 1753 г.
2. Линней каждому виду дал название из двух латинских
слов: родового названия и видового эпитета, например
пшеница твердая – Triticum durum.
Unit IV.
THE KINGDOM OF PLANTAE
Living things are classified in six kingdoms based on structure.
Within prokaryotes are the kingdoms Monera (Eubacteria) and
Archaea. Within eukaryotes are the kingdoms Protista, Plantae,
Fungae, Animalia.
The plant kingdom is divided into two major groups: the
nonvascular (Thallophytes and Bryophytes) and the vascular plants
(Tracheophytes).
Nonvascular plants are small, short plants found in wet places.
Their gametophyte generation dominates. The sporophyte generation
grows from it and depends on it for food. Vascular plants make up
about 80% of all plants. They have special tissues (xylem and phloem)
in their stems to move water and nutrients up and down the plant. This
allows the plant to grow to a much larger size. They are also
characterized by their reproductive phase. In vascular plants the
sporophyte generation is dominant.
Vascular plants are divided into two subgroups: seedless and
seeded. The seeded plants divide into two taxa, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce naked seeds and angiosperms
16
produce seeds within flowers, fruits, or vegetables. These make up
most of the plants in the landscape.
All the plants can be informally divided into lower and higher
plants. Higher plants or land plants have leaves, stems and roots.
Lower plants or relatively simple plants are not differentiated into
organs and their body is termed a thallus.
Lower plants are divided into:
Thallophytes
red algae (Rhodophyta)
green algae (Chlorophyta)
diatoms (Bacillariophyta)
brown algae (Phaeophyta)
euglenoids (Euglenophyta)
dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta)
yellow-green algae
(Xanthophyta)
 charales (Charophyta)
 golden algae
(Chrysophyta)







Higher plants include:
Seedless plants
 whisk ferns (Psilitophyta)
 clubmosses
(Lycopodiophyta)
 horsetails (Equisetophyta)
 ferns (Pteridophyta)
 Rhiniophytes (Rhiniophyta))
17
Bryophytes
 mosses (Bryophyta)
 liverworts (Hepatophyta)
 hornworts
(Anthocerotophyta)
Seeded plants
 Gymnosperms
(Gymnospermae)
 Angiosperms
(Angiospermae)
One of the distinguishing features of members of the plant
kingdom is a life cycle that includes alternation of generations. That
is, during the life cycle of each individual, there is a diploid (2n) stage
(sporophyte) and a haploid (n) stage (gametophyte). Over the course
of evolutionary time, the diploid stage has come to dominate the plant
life cycle so that in angiosperms, the recognizable plant is the diploid
stage while the inner organs of flowers comprise the very reduced
haploid stage. In the
most ancient plants,
the
nonvascular
plants, however, the
recognizable plant is
haploid and the
diploid stage is very
small and attached
to the haploid stage.
Regardless of which
stage (haploid or
diploid) dominates,
in all plants the life
cycle consists of the
following events—the sporophyte produces haploid spores, which
grow into the gametophyte; the gametophyte produces gametes (egg
and sperm), which fuse to produce a zygote, which grows into the
sporophyte. Spores are very different from gametes (which can fuse)
and seeds (which contain embryonic plants). Although they are not
particularly hardy, spores are dispersed from the plant and can
contribute to its spread.
Haploid organisms have only one copy of each gene and do not
possess the level of variation or ability to adapt to a diversity of
environments that diploid organisms have.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Gametophyte, sperm, dominant, sporophyte, eukaryote, nonvascular,
prokaryote, kingdom, thallus, stem, leaf, flower, angiosperm, tissue,
generation, nutrient, landscape, differentiate, gymnosperm, cycle,
alternation, diploid, reduce, spore, embryonic, gamete, contribute,
diversity, variation, haploid, dominate, egg, zygote.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. How many kingdoms are living things classified in?
2. What major groups is the plant kingdom divided into?
3. Which plants make up most of the plants in the landscape?
4. What divisions do higher plants include?
5. What life cycle do members of the plant kingdom have?
6. How many stages are there during the life cycle of plant? What
are they?
7. What stage dominates in the plant life cycle?
8. What do sporophyte and gametophyte produce?
9. What organisms possess the ability to adapt to a diversity of
environments?
10. What is the main difference between nonvascular plants and
vascular plants?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Higher plants are not differentiated into organs and their body
is termed a thallus.
2. In all plants the life cycle consists of the following events —
the gametophyte produces haploid spores, which grow into the
sporophyte; the sporophyte produces gametes (egg and sperm),
which fuse to produce a zygote, which grows into the
gametophyte.
3. In vascular plants the sporophyte generation is dominant.
4. Diploid organisms have only one copy of each gene and do not
possess the level of variation or ability to adapt to a diversity of
environments that haploid organisms have.
5. Whisk ferns make up about 80% of all plants.
6. Angiosperms produce naked seeds and gymnosperms produce
seeds within flowers, fruits, or vegetables.
7. Nonvascular plants are small, short plants found in wet places.
19
Ex.5. Match the term with its description.
1) Egg
a) The spore-producing, diploid (2n) phase in a life
cycle characterized by alternation of
generations.
2) Zygote
b) A haploid reproductive cell.
3) Gamete
c) A reproductive cycle in which a haploid (n)
phase, the gametes, which after fusion in pairs
form a zygote, germinate, producing a diploid
(2n) phase, the sporophyte. Spores produced by
meiotic division from the sporophyte give rise
to new gametophytes, completing the cycle.
4) Gametophyte
d) In plants, which have an alternation of
generation, the haploid (n), gamete-producing
phase.
5) Sporophyte
e) A nonmotile female gamete, usually larger than
a male gamete of the same species.
6) Spore
f) The diploid (2n) cell resulting from the fusion of
male and female gametes.
7) Thallus
g) A type of body that is undifferentiated into rootlike, stem-like, or leaf-like.
8) Alternation of
Generation
h) The product of meiosis i.e. the reproductive,
asexual cell, capable of developing into an
adult without fusion with another cell.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. In the most ancient plants, the nonvascular plants, however, the
recognizable plant is haploid and the diploid stage is very small
and attached to the haploid stage.
2. They have special tissues (xylem and phloem) in their stems to
move water and nutrients up and down the plant.
20
3. That is, during the life cycle of each individual, there is a
diploid (2n) stage (sporophyte) and a haploid (n) stage
(gametophyte).
4. The plant kingdom is divided into two major groups: the
nonvascular (Thallophytes and Bryophytes) and the vascular
plants (Tracheophytes).
5. Haploid organisms have only one copy of each gene and do not
possess the level of variation or ability to adapt to a diversity of
environments that diploid organisms have.
6. This allows the plant to grow to a much larger size.
7. All the plants can be informally divided into lower and higher
plants.
8. One of the distinguishing features of members of the plant
kingdom is a life cycle that includes alternation of generations.
9. Over the course of evolutionary time, the diploid stage has
come to dominate the plant life cycle so that in angiosperms,
the recognizable plant is the diploid stage while the inner
organs of flowers comprise the very reduced haploid stage.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. One __ the distinguishing features __ members __ the plant
kingdom is a life cycle that includes alternation __ generations.
2. They have special tissues (xylem and phloem) __ their stems to
move water and nutrients __ and __ the plant.
3. That is, __ the life __ cycle __ each individual, there is a
diploid (2n) stage (sporophyte) and a haploid (n) stage
(gametophyte).
4. Living things are classified __ six kingdoms based __ structure.
5. __ the most ancient plants, the nonvascular plants, however, the
recognizable plant is haploid and the diploid stage is very small
and attached __ the haploid stage.
6. Vascular plants make __ __ 80% __ all plants.
7. Spores are very different __ gametes (which can fuse) and
seeds (which contain __ embryonic plants).
21
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Nonvascular, larger, reproductive, seedless, landscape, informally,
relatively, differentiated, distinguishing, recognizable, reduced,
following, embryonic, variation.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Oak
2. European (white) birch
3. Scotch pine
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Царство Растения условно делят на Низшие растения и
Высшие растения. К Низшим растениям относятся
Водоросли и Мохообразные, т.к. их тело не
дифференцировано на органы, а представляет собой
таллом. У Высших же растений тело делится на корень,
стебель и лист.
2. В жизненном цикле каждого растения, имеющего половое
размножение, существует смена гаплоидной и диплоидной
фаз.
3. У высших растений происходит чередование поколений –
бесполого (спорофита) и полового (гаметофита). На
диплоидном спорофите образуются гаплоидные споры. Из
споры развивается гаплоидный гаметофит, производящий
гаплоидные гаметы. При их слиянии из зиготы вновь
развивается диплоидный спорофит.
22
Unit V.
NONVASCULAR PLANTS. ALGAE
Algae are unicellular or multicellular organisms that
photosynthesize, but lack the features such as leaves, roots, seeds and
flowers of the ‘higher’ vascular plants. Algae have a wide ranging
classification, falling within several groups from plants through to
protists (single celled organisms) and even bacteria (blue-green
algae). They can commonly be found in aquatic - both freshwater and
marine - environments, but can be found in damp terrestrial
environments or even dry environments where they can live in
symbiosis with fungus as lichen. Many algae species move themselves
through the water column, while others float, attach themselves to
objects in water or are terrestrial. Algae form an important part of many
ecosystems and have a vast variety of body shapes, biochemistries and
life cycles.
Algae have cells called chloroplasts that take light energy
from the sun and convert it into chemical
energy that the organism can use. These
chloroplasts can be anywhere from yellow to
brown, blue-green to bright green and red;
therefore algae can come in a variety of colors.
Some algae reproduce via asexual
reproduction, where the parent splits into two
or more cells, while other algae are capable of
sexual reproduction. A few algae can
reproduce by either method with some algae
alternating methods depending on environmental
conditions. Some even adapt reproduction rates
in response to water flow rates. For example, an
alga may reproduce faster in turbulent waters, to
replace cells swept downstream, than in still waters where algal
biomass can accumulate.
Algae play a vital role in the aquatic ecosystem. They provide
food and shelter for other organisms and are important in the process of
23
absorbing nutrients and toxins. They are also critical in fixing carbon
and creating atmospheric and dissolved aquatic oxygen.
Algae
are
also
economically
important, being utilized in a number of
ways: source of beta-carotene, glycerol,
alginates; a food source for fish and other
farmed animals; an important human food
source; fertilizer; pollution control agents;
and as a fuel source oil from algae can be
used to create biodiesel. Unfortunately, algal
habitats are being destroyed or altered faster
than new species are being discovered.
The Green Algae
The green algae are the most common kind of freshwater algae
and they are common at sea, especially in shallow water. (Ulva,
Chaetomorpha, Codium, etc.)
The Brown Algae
The brown algae are usually the
most conspicuous plants in the sublittoral
and sub-tidal zones in South Australia. The
common ones are large, tough plants
growing attached to rocks and reefs.
(Hormosira, Cystophora, Scaberia, etc.)
The Red Algae
This group has the largest number of
species. There is a great diversity in their structure and reproduction
making their taxonomy very difficult. Many of the reds are deep water
species and so are not often seen on reefs. Some of those commonly
found on reefs secrete calcium carbonate
(limestone) making them rock hard. These have
the common name of coralline algae. Usually
they are pale pink in color but may appear white
if bleached by the sun. They are commonly
mistaken for corals. (Jania, Corallina,
Metagoniolithon)
24
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Fungus, biochemistry, aquatic, photosynthesize, chemical, algae,
biomass, environmental, absorb, multicellular, symbiosis, fungi,
chloroplast, unicellular, bacteria, marine, accumulate, glycerol,
fertilizer, pollution, biodiesel, unfortunately, method, shallow, coral,
sublittoral, secrete, alga, calcium, diversity, coralline, bacterium,
conspicuous.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. Where can algae be found?
2. Do unicellular or multicellular algae belong to the plant
kingdom?
3. What cells take light energy from the sun and convert it into
chemical energy that the organism can use?
4. How many types of reproduction in algae do you know?
5. What role do algae play in aquatic ecosystems?
6. What role do algae play in a human life?
7. What groups are algae divided in?
8. What algae are commonly mistaken for corals?
9. What algae grow attached to rocks and reefs?
10. What algae are the most common kind of freshwater algae?
11. What algae group has the largest number of species?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Some of brown algae commonly found on reefs secrete calcium
carbonate (limestone) making them rock hard.
2. Green algae have the largest number of species.
3. Algae reproduce only asexually, where the parent splits into
two or more cells.
4. Algae are unicellular or multicellular organisms that do not
photosynthesize, but have the features such as leaves, roots,
seeds and flowers of the ‘higher’ vascular plants.
5. Fuel source oil from fungi can be used to create biodiesel.
25
6. An alga may reproduce faster in still waters where algal
biomass can accumulate, than in turbulent waters.
Ex.5. Complete the following statements.
1. The __________ algae are commonly mistaken for corals.
2. Algae have cells called __________ that take light energy from
the sun and convert it into chemical energy that the organism
can use.
3. Some algae reproduce via __________ reproduction, where the
parent splits into two or more cells, while other algae are
capable of __________ reproduction.
4. The __________ algae are the most common kind of freshwater
algae and they are common at sea, especially in shallow water.
5. Symbiosis of alga and fungus is a __________.
6. Algae play a vital role in the aquatic __________.
7. Algae are unicellular or multicellular organisms that
photosynthesize, but lack the features such as __________,
__________, __________ and __________ of the ‘higher’
vascular plants.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Unfortunately, algal habitats are being destroyed or altered
faster than new species are being discovered.
2. For example, an alga may reproduce faster in turbulent waters,
to replace cells swept downstream, than in still waters where
algal biomass can accumulate.
3. Many of the reds are deep water species and so are not often
seen on reefs.
4. They can commonly be found in aquatic - both freshwater and
marine – environments.
5. They are also critical in fixing carbon and creating atmospheric
and dissolved aquatic oxygen.
6. Algae have cells called chloroplasts that take light energy from
the sun and convert it into chemical energy that the organism
can use.
7. The brown algae are usually the most conspicuous plants in the
sublittoral and sub-tidal zones in South Australia.
26
8. These chloroplasts can be anywhere from yellow to brown,
blue-green to bright green and red; therefore algae can come in
a variety of colors.
9. A few algae can reproduce by either method with some algae
alternating methods depending on environmental conditions.
10. The common ones are large, tough plants growing attached to
rocks and reefs.
11. This group has the largest number of species.
12. Some of those commonly found on reefs secrete calcium
carbonate (limestone) making them rock hard.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. They are commonly mistaken __ corals.
2. These chloroplasts can be anywhere __ yellow __ brown, bluegreen __ bright green and red; therefore algae can come __ a
variety __ colors.
3. Algae have a wide ranging classification, falling __ several
groups __ plants through __ protists (single celled organisms)
and even bacteria (blue-green algae).
4. A few algae can reproduce __ either method __ some algae
alternating methods depending __ environmental conditions.
5. Usually they are pale pink __ color but may appear white if
bleached __ the sun.
6. Some algae reproduce __ asexual reproduction, where the
parent splits __ two or more cells, while other algae are capable
__ sexual reproduction.
7. They can commonly be found __ aquatic - both freshwater and
marine - environments, __ can be found __ damp terrestrial
environments or even __ dry environments where they can live
__ symbiosis __ fungus as lichen.
8. Algae have cells called chloroplasts that take light energy __
the sun and convert it __ chemical energy that __ the organism
can use.
9. They provide food and shelter __ other organisms and are
important __ the process __ absorbing nutrients and toxins.
10. Some even adapt reproduction rates __ response __ water flow
rates.
11. Many __ the reds are deep water species and so are not often
seen __ reefs.
27
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Multicellular,
freshwater,
aquatic,
biochemistry,
asexual,
photosynthesize, unicellular, absorbing, dissolved, economically,
biodiesel, fixing, faster, usually, largest, coralline, commonly.
Ex.9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Mermaid’s necklace.
2. Sea lettuce
3. Corallina
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Водоросли живут преимущественно в воде. Тело их не
расчленено на органы и ткани, органы размножения
одноклеточные. Такое строение отличает их от высших
растений.
2. Различают следующие отделы водорослей: Красные,
Зеленые, Золотистые, Желто-зеленые, Диатомовые, Бурые,
Эвгленовые, Пиррофитовые и др.
3. Подавляющее большинство водорослей живет в морях,
океанах, реках, озерах и других водоемах.
4. Общую экологическую группу составляют наземные
водоросли, живущие на почве и в ней. Многие участвуют в
почвообразовательном процессе. Общее число видов
почвенных водорослей
- более 1000, среди них –
Диатомовые, Зеленые, Золотистые и Красные.
5. По составу водорослей можно установить степень
загрязнения водоема. При загрязнении тяжелыми
металлами и повышении кислотности снижаются
численность и число видов водорослей.
28
Unit VI.
NONVASCULAR PLANTS.
B
BRYOPHYTES
There are three divisions of Bryophytes - mosses, liverworts
and hornworts. Lacking specialized vascular (transport) tissues
(xylem and phloem), these plants are dependent upon diffusion and
osmosis for the movement of water and minerals, consequently
restricting their ecological distribution to moist environments.
Bryophytes have no roots; instead, they are lightly anchored to
the soil with rhizoids (tissue outgrowths from the base of the plant).
These plants consist of parenchyma (generalized) cells, meristems
(where cell division occurs), and a cuticle on their top surfaces.
Finally, these plants are gametophyte dominant, meaning that
the recognizable stage of these plants is the haploid gametophyte
generation. The gametophyte is
perennial, photosynthetic, and can
reproduce asexually by vegetative
tissue fragments.
Mosses. There are over
9,500 species of mosses and they
are found throughout the world.
Mosses can be one of three types —
peat mosses (Sphagnum), granite
mosses, and leafy mosses. Peat
mosses are found covering vast
acreages
in
the
northern
hemisphere where they are
harvested for fuel and other
commercial
uses
(including
planting mixes). Granite mosses are
found at high elevations and are
less common than the other two
types. Leafy mosses are found
29
30
throughout the world and in some situations, such as in greenhouses
and landscapes, they can be weedy.
But not everything called a “moss” is a bryophyte; Spanish
moss is a flowering plant, Irish moss is a marine Red Alga, Reindeer
moss is a lichen, and Club mosses are a primitive vascular plant called
a Lycopod.
Liverworts. Like mosses, liverworts are also very small plants.
There are approximately 6,000 species of liverworts in the world and
all are one of two types—liver shaped (thallose) or leafy. Although the
lobed liverworts are the best-known representatives of this phylum,
they constitute only about 20% of the species. The other 80% are leafy
and superficially resemble mosses. Some liverworts, like some mosses,
are weedy in greenhouses, where they can be found growing on the
surface of the potting medium.
There are several groups of liverworts. For one group, the
thallus forming liverworts, the gametophyte looks like a flat,
branching green ribbon. Gametes are produced beneath the umbrellashaped structures and the fertilized eggs develop into the sporophytes.
The sporophyte generation is small and not easily visible - it occurs
only as tiny bag-like structures underneath the little umbrella-shaped
structures growing out of the thallus. In sexual reproduction, vertical
reproductive structures sprout from the gametophyte.
Liverworts reproduce asexually primarily by fragmentation;
however, some liverworts may also reproduce asexually by bundles of
tissue called gemmae. In many liverworts, gemmae develop in small
cup-like structures called gemmae cups. Splashed from the cups by
31
rain, gemmae landing in a suitable environment will germinate and
grow into new thalli.
Hornworts are extremely rare and rarely encountered. The
origins of hornworts are a puzzle. They are most likely among the
earliest land plants, 65 to 145 million years ago.
The small hornwort sporophytes resemble tiny green broom
handles rising from filmy gametophytes usually less than 2 centimeters
in diameter. The sporophyte base is embedded in gametophyte tissue,
from which it derives some of its nutrition. However, the sporophyte
has stomata, is photosynthetic, and provides much of the energy
needed for growth and reproduction. Hornwort cells usually have a
single chloroplast.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Division, mineral, distribution, meristem, moss, movement, diffusion,
restrict, anchor, cuticle, base, surface, soil, osmosis, moist, outgrowth,
rhizoid, hornwort, ecological, liverwort, bryophytes, parenchyma,
gametophyte, photosynthetic, dominant, asexually, vegetative,
fragment, perennial, reproduce, haploid, commercial, hemisphere,
throughout, greenhouse, landscape, marine, primitive, leafy,
approximately, representative, resemble, phylum, medium, constitute,
thallus, ribbon, branch, occur, tiny, structure, sprout, primarily,
underneath, vertical, fragmentation, bundle, gemmae, germinate,
suitable, splash, centimeter, nutrition, stomata, chloroplast, growth,
diameter, thalli.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the dominant generation of a moss? Is this generation
haploid or diploid?
2. Is the moss sporophyte photosynthetic?
32
3. What role does water play in the reproductive life cycles of
Bryophytes?
4. How do liverworts reproduce?
5. What is the function of the rhizoids?
6. Is the liverwort thallus haploid or diploid?
7. Where are peat mosses found?
8. Is every plant called a “moss” a bryophyte?
9. How many types of liverworts are there?
10. Where can liverworts be found?
11. How does the gametophyte of the thallus forming liverworts
look like?
12. How do liverworts reproduce?
13. What is the origin of hornworts?
14. How many chloroplasts do hornwort cells usually have?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. There are three divisions of Bryophytes - ferns, liverworts and
hornworts.
2. The origins of hornworts are the sublittoral and sub-tidal zones
in South Australia.
3. Bryophytes have no roots; instead, they are lightly anchored to
the soil with rhizoids.
4. Bryophytes are gametophyte dominant, meaning that the
recognizable stage of these plants is the haploid gametophyte
generation.
5. There are approximately 6,000 species of liverworts in the
world and all are one of three types — liver shaped (thallose),
leafy or granite.
6. Hornworts reproduce asexually primarily by fragmentation;
however, some hornworts may also reproduce asexually by
bundles of tissue called gemmae.
7. The sporophyte base is embedded in gametophyte tissue, from
which it derives some of its water.
8. Although the lobed liverworts are the best-known
representatives of this phylum, they constitute only about 20%
of the species.
9. Peat mosses are found covering vast acreages in the northern
hemisphere where they are harvested for fuel and other
commercial uses (including planting mixes).
33
Ex.5. Complete the following statements.
1. There are three divisions of __________ - mosses, liverworts
and hornworts.
2. Lacking specialized __________ tissues (xylem and phloem),
these plants are dependent upon diffusion and osmosis for the
movement of water and minerals.
3. Bryophytes have no __________; instead, they are lightly
anchored to the soil with rhizoids.
4. Some liverworts, like some mosses, are weedy in greenhouses,
where they can be found growing on the __________ of the
potting medium.
5. The sporophyte generation is small and not easily visible - it
occurs only as tiny bag-like structures underneath the little
umbrella-shaped structures growing out of the __________.
6. Liverworts reproduce asexually primarily by __________.
7. In many liverworts, gemmae develop in small cup-like
structures called __________ __________.
8. Splashed from the cups by rain, gemmae landing in a
__________ environment will germinate and grow into new
thalli.
9. The origins of hornworts are a __________.
10. __________ cells usually have a single chloroplast.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Lacking specialized vascular (transport) tissues (xylem and
phloem), these plants are dependent upon diffusion and
osmosis for the movement of water and minerals, consequently
restricting their ecological distribution to moist environments.
2. Bryophytes have no roots; instead, they are lightly anchored to
the soil with rhizoids
3. The gametophyte is perennial, photosynthetic, and can
reproduce asexually by vegetative tissue fragments.
4. There are over 9,500 species of mosses and they are found
throughout the world.
5. Peat mosses are found covering vast acreages in the northern
hemisphere where they are harvested for fuel and other
commercial uses (including planting mixes).
34
6. Leafy mosses are found throughout the world and in some
situations, such as in greenhouses and landscapes, they can be
weedy.
7. But not everything called a “moss” is a bryophyte; Spanish
moss is a flowering plant, Irish moss is a marine Red Alga,
Reindeer moss is a lichen, and Club mosses are a primitive
vascular plant called a Lycopod.
8. Gametes are produced beneath the umbrella-shaped structures
and the fertilized eggs develop into the sporophytes.
9. Liverworts reproduce asexually primarily by fragmentation;
however, some liverworts may also reproduce asexually by
bundles of tissue called gemmae.
10. Splashed from the cups by rain, gemmae landing in a suitable
environment will germinate and grow into new thalli.
11. They are most likely among the earliest land plants, 65 to 145
million years ago.
12. However, the sporophyte has stomata, is photosynthetic, and
provides much of the energy needed for growth and
reproduction.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. The small hornwort sporophytes resemble tiny green broom
handles rising __ filmy gametophytes usually less than 2
centimeters __ diameter.
2. There are over 9,500 species __ mosses and they are found __
the world.
3. Peat mosses are found covering vast acreages __ the northern
hemisphere where they are harvested __ fuel and other
commercial uses (including planting mixes).
4. The gametophyte is perennial, photosynthetic, and can
reproduce __ asexually __ vegetative tissue fragments.
5. They are most likely __ the earliest land plants, 65 __ 145
million years ago.
6. These plants consist __ parenchyma (generalized) cells,
meristems (where cell division occurs), and a cuticle __ their
top surfaces.
7. However, the sporophyte has stomata, is photosynthetic, and
provides __ much __ the energy needed __ growth and
reproduction.
35
8. There are approximately 6,000 species __ liverworts __ the
world and all are one __ two types—liver shaped (thallose) or
leafy.
9. Liverworts reproduce asexually primarily __ fragmentation;
however, some liverworts may also reproduce asexually __
bundles __ tissue called gemmae.
10. Bryophytes have no __ roots; instead, they are lightly anchored
__ the soil __ rhizoids (tissue outgrowths __ the base __ the
plant).
11. Splashed __ the cups __ rain, gemmae landing __ a suitable
environment will germinate and grow __ new thalli.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Dependent, photosynthetic, movement, leafy, covering, planting,
greenhouse, weedy, representative, potting, branching, fertilized, easily,
fragmentation, rarely, encountered, earliest, growth.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Umbrella liverwort
2. Sphagnum palustre
3. Dendroceros crispus
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. В отдел Моховидные входит более 25 000 видов растений.
От высших растений они резко отличаются преобладанием
в цикле развития гаметофита. У более примитивных форм
гаметофит представлен талломом, слоевищем, а у
остальных расчленен на стебель и листья. Корней нет, их
заменяют ризоиды, которые служат лишь для заякоривания
растения, так как вода и минеральные вещества достаточно
быстро поглощаются стеблем.
2. Спорофит самостоятельно не существует, развивается и
всегда находится на гаметофите, получая от него воду и
питательные вещества.
3. Отдел Моховидные делится на три класса: Антоцеротовые,
Печеночные и Листостебельные мхи.
36
Unit VII.
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS
The seedless vascular plants possess several adaptations
lacking in nonvascular plants. Xylem and phloem are present to
transport efficiently water and sugars, respectively throughout the
plant body. Additionally these vascular tissues provide strength and
support, allowing the plants to grow tall and upright. With the presence
of vascular tissues, all ferns and fern allies have true stems with most
having true roots and leaves. As is true of all vascular plants, the
seedless vascular plants are sporophyte dominant, with the recognizable
stage being the diploid sporophyte generation. The sporophyte is
perennial, photosynthetic, and can reproduce asexually.
There are four divisions of seedless vascular plants, also called
lower vascular plants to reflect their less complex anatomy and
morphology relative to seed plants. These divisions include the whisk
ferns, club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. In addition to vascular tissue
(xylem, which transports water, and phloem, which transports
carbohydrates), as a group they possess true stems, roots, and leaves
(but no flowers or seeds).
Whisk ferns are the simplest of the
seedless vascular plants, possessing only stems,
rhizomes, and sporangia. They have no true
roots or leaves; rather they have rhizomes and
leaf-like structures that are just tissue
outgrowths from stems. In the absence of
leaves, aerial stems are the main organs of
photosynthesis. The stems bear small, lobed
sporangia in which spores are produced. After
dispersal, a spore germinates into a nonphotosynthetic, underground prothallus that
receives nutrients from a symbiotic relationship
with fungi.
This small division consists of one
family and two genera, the most well-known of
which is Psilotum. Whisk ferns are so named
37
because their stems exhibit a dichotomous branching pattern
resembling a whisk broom.
Club mosses are somewhat more
advanced than whisk ferns, possessing
stems, rhizomes, sporangia in strobili,
and true roots (but no true leaves). The
leafy stems are seldom more than 30
centimeters long. Sporangia are borne on
small,
specialized
leaves
termed
sporophylls typically clustered in coneshaped strobili at the tips of stems. Club
mosses are often mistaken for true mosses
or immature pines. These plants are
worldwide in distribution but are most
abundant in the tropics and moist
temperate regions. Representatives of this group include Lycopodium
and Selaginella.
Horsetails all occur in one family and one genus of 15 species,
Equisetum. Fossil forms of Equisetum extend back 300 million years to
an era when some of their relatives were treelike. Today, they are
widely scattered around the world, mostly
in damp places. Some that grow among the
coastal redwoods of California may reach a
height of 3 meters, but most are less than a
meter tall. These plants have stems,
rhizomes, sporangia in cones, roots, and
true leaves (although the leaves are quite
small in some species). Equisetum plants
are known for the high levels of silica in
their stems. Horsetail sporophytes consist
of ribbed, jointed, photosynthetic stems that
arise from branching underground rhizomes
with roots at their nodes.
Ferns are the most advanced and most numerous of all the
seedless vascular plants. All ferns are herbaceous and perennial. The
diploid fern sporophyte has true roots, stems and leaves. The roots and
a modified stem called a rhizome are located underground with only
the compound leaves, or fronds, rising above the soil level. Clusters of
sporangia known as sori (sorus, singular) form on the underside of
38
fronds. The sporangia may be protected by a shield-shaped indusium, a
specialized outgrowth of the frond. Along the back of each helmetshaped sporangium is a row of thick-walled cells termed the annulus.
The annulus readily responds to moisture changes, bringing about the
dispersal of haploid spores produced within the sporangia.
As a spore germinates, it develops
into a tiny, heart-shaped gametophyte
called the prothallus (or prothallium).
The prothallus lacks vascular tissues and is
anchored to the soil by hair-like rhizoids
extending from the ventral surface.
Located near and between the rhizoids are
several sperm-producing antheridia; near
the notch or indention of the prothallus are
several egg-producing archegonia. The
biflagellate sperm swim through water to
reach an egg in the archegonia.
Fertilization results in a diploid zygote
that develops into a mature sporophyte
with vascular tissue. The sporophyte is initially dependent on the
gametophyte, but as the sporophyte matures, the prothallus withers and
dies. Young leaves emerging from the rhizome begin as tightly coiled
fiddleheads that eventually unfurl into the mature fronds characteristic
of ferns.
There are over 10,000 species of ferns in existence today and
they grow around the world in many different habitats.
Rhyniophytes. The first vascular plants for which we have a
relatively complete record belonged to the phylum Rhyniophyta; they
flourished some 410 million years ago but are now extinct. We are not
certain what the very earliest of these vascular plants looked like, but
fossils of Cooksonia provide some insight into their characteristics.
Cooksonia, the first known vascular land plant, appeared about 420
million years ago. It was successful partly because it encountered little
competition as it spread out over vast tracts of land. The plants were
only a few centimeters tall and had no roots or leaves. They consisted
of little more than a branching axis, the branches forking evenly and
expanding slightly toward the tips. They were homosporous
(producing only one type of spore). Sporangia formed at branch tips.
Other ancient vascular plants that followed evolved more complex
39
arrangements of sporangia. Leaves began to appear as protuberances
from stems.
Cooksonia is a typical early vascular plant. It was less than 15
cm tall, with stems that dichotomously branched. Dichotomous
branching (where the stem divides into two equal branches) appears a
primitive or ancestral trait in vascular plants. Rhynia is another early
vascular plant. Like Cooksonia, it lacked leaves and roots.
Cooksonia
Rhynia
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Possess, adaptation, xylem, phloem, sugars, throughout, fern allies,
dominant, sporophyte, presence, anatomy, whisk fern, morphology,
carbohydrate, fern, sporangia, horsetail, rhizome, moss, seedless
perennial, photosynthetic, outgrowth, dispersal, aerial, photosynthesis,
prothallus, relationship, fungi, symbiotic, germinate, dichotomous,
resemble, genera, consist, strobili, sporophyll, tip, pine, immature,
worldwide, distribution, fossil, height, cone, silica, node, numerous,
herbaceous, frond, sori, indusium, sporangium, spore, annulus, sorus,
40
prothallus, gametophyte, rhizoid, antheridia, fertilization, fiddlehead,
archegonia, biflagellate, zygote, sperm, existence, complete, flourish,
extinct, vast, centimeter, axis, toward, protuberance, arrangement,
homosporous, fungus.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. How many divisions of seedless vascular plants do you know?
2. Which of the fern allies is known for its dichotomous
branching?
3. What kind of tissue transports water and sugars, and provides
strength and support?
4. What is the dominant generation of seedless vascular plants?
5. What plants are the simplest of the seedless vascular plants?
6. Do whisk ferns have roots, leaves or stems?
7. Where are sporangia borne in club mosses?
8. How many genus and species do horsetails have?
9. Which plants are known for the high levels of silica in their
stems?
10. What representatives of Rhyniophytes do you know?
Ex.4. Correct the statements where necessary.
1. Club mosses that grow among the coastal redwoods of
California may reach a height of 3 meters, but most are less
than a meter tall.
2. Horsetail sporophytes consist of ribbed, jointed, photosynthetic
leaves that arise from branching underground rhizomes with
roots at their nodes.
3. The first vascular plants for which we have a relatively
complete record belonged to the phylum Rhyniophyta; they
flourished some 410 million years ago but are now extinct.
4. The annulus readily responds to moisture changes, bringing
about the dispersal of haploid gametes produced within the
sporangia.
5. Clusters of sporangia known as sori form on the upper side of
fronds.
6. In the absence of leaves, aerial stems are the main organs of
photosynthesis in whisk ferns.
41
7. Club mosses are often mistaken for true mosses or immature
pines.
Ex.5. Match the term with its description.
1) Annulus
a) A more or less horizontal underground stem
found in ferns.
2)Antheridium
b) A multicellular organ in which a single egg is
produced.
3)Archeogonium
c) In homosporous vascular plants, such as ferns,
the more or less independent, photosynthetic
gametophyte bearing both antheridia and
archegonia.
4) Frond
d) In ferns, a row of specialized cells in a
sporangium.
5) Prothallus
e) A reproductive structure consisting of a number
of modified layers (sporophylls) or ovulebearing scales grouped terminally on a stem.
6) Rhizome
f) The leaf of a fern.
7) Sorus
g) A modified leaf or leaflike organ that bears
sporangia.
8) Sporophyll
h) The organ of male sex cell development,
embedded in sterile tissue.
9) Strobilus
i)
A group or cluster of sporangia or spores in
ferns.
42
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. The seedless vascular plants possess several adaptations lacking
in nonvascular plants.
2. There are four divisions of seedless vascular plants, also called
lower vascular plants to reflect their less complex anatomy and
morphology relative to seed plants.
3. Whisk ferns are the simplest of the seedless vascular plants,
possessing only stems, rhizomes, and sporangia.
4. Whisk ferns are so named because their stems exhibit a
dichotomous branching pattern resembling a whisk broom.
5. Club mosses are often mistaken for true mosses or immature
pines.
6. Some that grow among the coastal redwoods of California may
reach a height of 3 meters, but most are less than a meter tall.
7. Equisetum plants are known for the high levels of silica in their
stems.
8. Ferns are the most advanced and most numerous of all the
seedless vascular plants.
9. The roots and a modified stem called a rhizome are located
underground with only the compound leaves, or fronds, rising
above the soil level.
10. The sporangia may be protected by a shield-shaped indusium, a
specialized outgrowth of the frond.
11. Rhyniophytes. The first vascular plants for which we have a
relatively complete record belonged to the phylum
Rhyniophyta
12. We are not certain what the very earliest of these vascular
plants looked like, but fossils of Cooksonia provide some
insight into their characteristics.
13. Cooksonia, the first known vascular land plant, appeared about
420 million years ago.
14. The plants were only a few centimeters tall and had no roots or
leaves.
15. Leaves began to appear as protuberances from stems.
43
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. Equisetum plants are known __ the high levels __ silica __ their
stems.
2. The roots and a modified stem __ called a rhizome are located
underground __ only the compound leaves, or fronds, rising __
the soil level.
3. We are not certain what the very earliest __ these vascular
plants looked like, __ fossils __ Cooksonia provide some
insight __ their characteristics.
4. With the presence __ vascular tissues, all ferns and fern allies
have true stems __ most having true roots and leaves.
5. __ dispersal, a spore germinates __ a non-photosynthetic,
underground prothallus that receives nutrients __ a symbiotic
relationship __ fungi.
6. The seedless vascular plants possess several adaptations lacking
__ nonvascular plants.
7. Sporangia are borne __ small, specialized leaves termed
sporophylls typically clustered __ cone-shaped strobili __ the
tips __ stems.
8. Fertilization results __ a diploid zygote that develops __ a
mature sporophyte __ vascular tissue.
9. __ the absence __ leaves, aerial stems are the main organs __
photosynthesis.
10. They consisted __ little more than a branching axis, the
branches forking evenly and expanding slightly __ the tips.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Adaptation, additionally, horsetail, simplest, outgrowth, nonphotosynthetic, relationship, branching, leafy, immature, worldwide,
dichotomously.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Lake quillwort (Merlin’s grass)
2. Great horsetail (northern giant horsetail)
44
3. Ostrich fern (shuttlecock fern)
4. Tmesipteris truncata
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Отдел Псилотовидные включает два рода – псилот и
тмезиптер. Это небольшие очень просто устроенные
травянистые растения, сходные по своему строению с
риниофитами. Псилот не имеет ни корней, ни листьев.
2. Папоротниковидные – самый многочисленный из всех
отделов высших споровых растений. Для папоротников
характерно: преобладание спорофита над гаметофитом,
наличие крупных сложных листьев – вай, расположение
спорангиев группами (сорусами) на нижней стороне
листьев.
3. До настоящего времени сохранился лишь один род
Хвощевидных
–
Equisetum,
представленный
15
травянистыми видами. Хвощи – многолетние травы,
клетки их эпидермы пропитаны кремнеземом. Споры
образуются на верхушках спороносных бесхлорофилльных
побегов.
Хотя
споры
внешне
одинаковы,
но
физиологически различны. При прорастании образуются
мужские и обоеполые гаметофиты. Они имеют вид
небольших зеленых рассеченных пластинок, с нижней
поверхности которых отходят ризоиды.
45
Unit VIII.
SEED PLANTS. GYMNOSPERMS
Seed plants produce two kinds of gametophytes — male and
female, each of which consists of just a few cells. Pollen grains,
multicellular male gametophytes, are conveyed to the egg in the
female gametophyte by wind or a pollinator. The sperm move toward
the egg through a growing pollen tube. This eliminates the need for
water. In contrast to the seedless plants, the whole male gametophyte
rather than just the sperm moves to the female gametophyte. A female
gametophyte develops within an ovule. In flowering plants
(angiosperms), the ovules are completely enclosed within diploid
sporophyte tissue (ovaries which develop into the fruit). In
gymnosperms (mostly cone-bearing seed plants), the ovules are not
completely enclosed by sporophyte tissue at the time of pollination.
Seed plants are one of the largest groups of plants on land. A
seed contains an embryo and nutrients, which are enclosed inside a
protective covering called a seed coat. Development of a new plant
begins with the seed. There are two main subgroups of seed plants:
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
There are several groups of living gymnosperms, none of which
are directly related to one another, but all of which lack the flowers and
fruits of angiosperms.
The term gymnosperm comes from a Greek word meaning
“naked seed.” Gymnosperms do not produce true flowers or fruit, and
therefore the seeds of gymnosperms are not enclosed in flowers or fruit.
The seeds of most gymnosperms develop on the surface of the scales of
female cones. Gymnosperms are thought to be more “primitive” than
the angiosperms (flowering plants). They reproduce fairly slowly.
More than a year may pass between pollination and fertilization, and
it can take seeds up to 3 years to mature. Also, most gymnosperms are
wind-pollinated. Gymnosperms are all woody plants (trees, shrubs, or
vines) and grow throughout most of the world, from 72о north latitude
to 55о south latitude. They are dominant in many colder and arctic
regions.
46
Gymnosperms are some of the tallest, most massive, and
longest-lived plants in the world. Humans use several species as
ornamentals and sources of high-quality wood.
The gymnosperms consist of four major, related groups:
conifers, cycads, ginkgos, and gnetales. Together, they represent about
15 families, 75-80 genera, and about 820 species.
The conifers are the largest and most
economically
important
group
of
gymnosperms. The conifers include such
plants as the pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea),
yew (Taxus), hemlock (Tsuga), firs (Abies),
juniper (Juniperus), redwood (Sequoia),
cedar (Cedrus), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga),
cypress (Cupressus), and many others. The
plants in this group are called conifers because most of them bear their
seeds in specialized structures called cones (strobili). Cones protect
ovules and seeds and aid pollination and dispersal. Conifers produce
two types of strobili: male or pollen cones (the male strobilus) and
female or seed cones (the ovulate strobilus).The male pollen grains
develop in small cones. The female cells develop in the ovules in large
cones. Conifers’ leaves are called needles.
The cycads are widely distributed through the tropical and
subtropical regions. There are 9 genera and about 100 species of
Cycads, including Zamia, which is
native to Florida, and a rather
common house plant, Cycas revoluta,
the sago palm. All Cycads are shrubs.
Most are less than 2 meters tall and
the largest is only 15 meters in height.
They are characterized by a large
crown of large pinnately compound
leaves. They are frequently confused
with and mistaken for palms or ferns,
but are only distantly related to both. Cycads are woody, long-lived,
unisexual plants. All species have coralloid roots, which support
symbiotic cyanobacteria that can fix atmospheric nitrogen. The
cycads and ginkgo are unique among seed plants in having motile
47
sperm; this is often taken as evidence of their evolutionary
primitiveness.
The ginkgos are represented
by only a single living species Ginkgo
biloba.
It is a tree, sometimes
attaining large size, native to China
but widely planted around the world.
It is undoubtedly one of the most
distinct of all deciduous trees. The
bright green fan shaped leaves are
unique among all trees and turn a
golden yellow in the fall. The veins
branch dichotomously, which is a unique leaf venation pattern. A
Ginkgo can always be identified from its leaves.
Ginkgo is often referred to as a "living fossil" because nearly
identical plants are known from fossils nearly 200 million years old.
The fossil record shows that they were formerly a widespread,
abundant, and diverse group.
The gnetales are one of the most peculiar plant groups. They
include three highly distinct groups totaling 68 species. One group, the
genus Ephedra, is composed of shrubs native to deserts and semiarid
areas. The second group, the genus
Gnetum, is composed of climbing
vines (and one tree species) native to
tropical rainforests. The third group
contains
a
single
species,
Welwitschia mirabilis. It lives in the
desert of Southwest Africa, produces
two leaves that grow throughout the life of plant, and lives about two
thousand years.
48
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Pollen grain, fruit, pollinator, wind, eliminate, egg, ovule, gametophyte,
embryo, nutrient, gymnosperms, scale, mature, shrub, pollination,
reproduce, woody, wind-pollinated, cone, vine, dominant, throughout,
ornamental, source, juniper, cedar, spruce, pine, yew, dispersal,
needles, distribute, subtropical, genera, native, palm, symbiotic,
nitrogen, cyanobacteria, evidence, motile, atmospheric, deciduous,
dichotomously, leaf venation, identical, fossil, desert.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. What does development of a new plant begin with?
2. Where do seeds of gymnosperms develop?
3. How long do gymnosperms reproduce?
4. Where do humans use gymnosperms?
5. What major groups do gymnosperms consist of? Which of them
is the largest one?
6. What are some of the various types of plants within these
groups?
7. How are conifers’ leaves called?
8. What types of strobili do you know?
9. Where are the cycads distributed through?
10. What function do symbiotic cyanobacteria have?
11. What plants do the ginkgos include?
12. What plant lives in the desert of Southwest Africa, produces
two leaves and lives about two thousand years?
Ex.4. Circle the best answer for each of the following.
1. Gymnosperms and angiosperms are the two major groups of:
a. seedless plants
b. vascular plants
c. spore-producing plants
d. seed-producing plants
49
2. The oldest group of seed plants on earth, dating back about 350
million years are the:
a. angiosperms
b. bryophytes
c. flowering plants
d. gymnosperms
3. Gymnosperms differ from angiosperms in that they do not
produce:
a. cones
b. pollen
c. flowers
d. chloroplasts
4. Slow growing tropical gymnosperms that look similar to palm
trees but are shorter are:
a. pines
b. cycads
c. maples
d. banana trees
5. Which of the following gymnosperm phyla includes spruces, fir,
and pines?
a. Pinophyta
b. Cycadophyta
c. Gnetophyta
d. Ginkophyta
6. The reproductive structures in gymnosperms are contained in:
a. flowers
b. stems
c. needles
d. cones
7. Instead of broad leaves, many gymnosperms possess:
a. needles
b. bark
c. scales
d. flowers
50
Ex.5. Unscramble the vocabulary words in the first column. Match
the words to the definitions in the second column.
1) esde
a. Group that includes conifers such as spruce,
fir, and pine.
2) ynsemmspgro
b. Slow-growing gymnosperms that grow in
tropical and subtropical areas; resemble palm
trees but are shorter.
3) oecsn
c. Thin, stiff structures that serve as leaves on
conifers.
4) acdysc
d. A structure that contains the complete embryo
of a plant, seed coat, and stored nutrients.
5) deleens
e. An ancient gymnosperm that has broad leaves
and is the only surviving species in its phylum.
6) noikgg
f. Contain the reproductive structures in
angiosperms.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Seed plants are one of the largest groups of plants on land.
2. There are two main subgroups of seed plants: gymnosperms
and angiosperms.
3. Gymnosperms are thought to be more “primitive” than the
angiosperms (flowering plants).
4. More than a year may pass between pollination and
fertilization, and it can take seeds up to 3 years to mature.
5. Gymnosperms are some of the tallest, most massive, and
longest-lived plants in the world.
6. The conifers are the largest and most economically important
group of gymnosperms.
7. Conifers’ leaves are called needles.
8. Most are less than 2 meters tall and the largest is only 15 meters
in height.
9. They are characterized by a large crown of large pinnately
compound leaves.
51
10. The cycads and ginkgo are unique among seed plants in having
motile sperm; this is often taken as evidence of their
evolutionary primitiveness.
11. The second group, the genus Gnetum, is composed of climbing
vines (and one tree species) native to tropical rainforests.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. They are frequently confused __ and mistaken __ palms or
ferns, but are only distantly related __ both.
2. More than a year may pass __ pollination and fertilization, and
it can take seeds __ __ 3 years to mature.
3. There are several groups __ living gymnosperms, none __
which are directly related __ one another, but all __ which lack
the flowers and fruits __ angiosperms.
4. The plants __ this group are called conifers because most __
them bear their seeds __ specialized structures called cones
(strobili).
5. It lives __ the desert __ Southwest Africa, produces two leaves
that grow __ the life of plant, and lives __ two thousand years.
6. In contrast __ the seedless plants, the whole male gametophyte
rather than just the sperm moves __ the female gametophyte.
7. Seed plants produce two kinds __ gametophytes — male and
female, each __ which consists __ just a few cells.
8. Development __ a new plant begins __ the seed.
9. There are 9 genera and __ 100 species of Cycads, including
Zamia, which is native __ Florida, and a rather common house
plant, Cycas revoluta, the sago palm.
10. The ginkgos are represented __ only a single __ living species
Ginkgo biloba.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Multicellular, pollinator, pollination, development, living, directly,
wind-pollinated, woody, widely, symbiotic, atmospheric, primitiveness,
undoubtedly, climbing.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Ginkgo biloba
3. White spruce
2. Welwitschia mirabilis
4. Sago palm
52
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Семя – орган, служащий для размножения растений. Оно
образуется и развивается на родительском спорофите,
получая от него питательные вещества.
2. Многоклеточное семя содержит зародыш будущего
растения со всеми основными органами, имеет запас
питательных веществ, защищено семенной кожурой и
обладает приспособлениями для расселения. У многих
семя проходит период покоя, прорастание начинается
лишь при наступлении благоприятных условий.
3. Голосеменные – разноспоровые растения, спорофит
преобладает над гаметофитом, который не имеет
самостоятельного
существования.
Спорофиты
голосеменных – древесные, реже кустарниковые
сухопутные растения.
4. Саговники распространены в тропиках и субтропиках. Это
вечнозеленые двудомные растения, на вершине ствола –
розетка перистых крупных листьев, что делает их
похожими на пальмы. Новый лист вырастает в один-два
года.
5. Класс Гнетовые включает три очень изолированных друг
от друга порядка, содержащих по одному семейству с
одним родом в каждом: Гнетовые, Эфедровые,
Вельвичиевые. Единственный род и вид – вельвичия
удивительная – растет в пустынях Юго-Западной Африки,
в основном в пустыне Намиб.
Unit IX.
SEED PLANTS. ANGIOSPERMS
The flowering plants, called angiosperms, are the largest
group of plants that live on land.
Flowering plants exhibit an almost infinite variety of shapes,
sizes, and textures. They vary, for example, from the huge Tasmanian
Eucalyptus trees, which have nearly as much mass as the giant
redwoods, to the tiniest duckweeds, which are less than 1 millimeter
long. In addition to the typical flattened green leaves with which
everyone is familiar, flowering plant leaves may be succulent, floating,
submerged, cup-shaped, spinelike, scalelike, feathery, papery, hairy, or
insect-trapping, and of almost any color. Some are so tiny one needs a
microscope to examine them, while others, such as those of the
Seychelles Island palm, can be up to 6 meters long. Their flowers vary
from the simple blossoms of buttercups to the extraordinarily complex
flowers
of
some
orchids, which may
lure their pollinators
with drugs, forcibly
attach bags of pollen to
their bodies, or dunk
them in fluid they
secrete. The flowers
may weigh less than 1
gram
and
remain
functional for only a few minutes, or they can weigh up to 9 kilograms
and be functional for months. Plants of several families are parasitic or
partially parasitic (for example, dodder, or mistletoe) on other plants,
or mycotrophic (deriving their nutrients from fungi that form a
mutualism with plant roots). Others, such as many orchids, are
epiphytic (attached to other plants, with no roots in the ground, and not
in any way parasitic).
The reproductive structures in flowering plants are the
flowers. They contain both the female and male structures. Flowers are
considered to be modified stems bearing modified leaves. There are
54
two kinds of cells that are involved in reproduction in flowering
plants. The pollen grains contain the “male” sperm cells, and are found
in the anther of the flower. The “female” cells are found within the
ovule. The ovule is housed inside the ovary of the flower. The color
and smell of the flowers attract insects and birds which help bring the
pollen in contact with the carpel.
Unlike sperm in mosses, ferns, and some gymnosperms, the
sperm of flowering plants have no flagella. At this point, the pollen
grain with its tube and sperm has become a mature male gametophyte.
As the pollen tube enters the embryo sac, it destroys a synergid in the
process and then discharges its contents.
Both sperm are functional, and an event called double
fertilization, unique to angiosperms, follows. One sperm unites with
the egg and forms a zygote, which develops into an embryo sporophyte
plant. The other sperm and the two polar nuclei unite, forming a
triploid primary endosperm nucleus. The primary endosperm nucleus
begins dividing rapidly and repeatedly, becoming triploid endosperm
tissue that may soon consist of thousands of cells. Endosperm tissue
can become an extensive part of the seed in grasses such as corn. But in
most flowering plants, it provides nutrients for the embryo that
develops from the zygote; in many species, such as peas and beans, it
disappears completely by the time the seed is mature.
After fertilization, the seed containing the embryo along with
nutrients for its development is formed. As development continues, the
fruit forms around the embryo and protects it as the embryo develops. If
the fruit is eaten by an animal, the seed passes through its digestive
system. When the seed falls on the ground, it may begin to grow. This
early stage of growth is called germination.
Flowering plants are used by humans for many practical
purposes. Examples are tomatoes, pumpkins, strawberries, potatoes,
beans, and peppers. Flowering plants such as roses, daisies, and
snapdragons have showy flowers and are popular garden plants.
Angiosperms not only include plants with readily noticeable flowers,
but also include most trees such as oaks, elms, maples, and birches.
They also include coconuts as well as many different species of cacti.
Fruits, vegetables, nuts, and herbs, as well as corn, wheat, rice, and
grains are all foods derived from angiosperms. Most vertebrate
animals, including humans, are either directly or indirectly dependent
on angiosperms.
55
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Exhibit, variety, texture, bean, giant, tiny, rose, microscope,
fertilization, embryo, strawberry, daisy, snapdragon, oak, maple, birch,
elm, coconut, cacti, herb, vertebrate, angiosperm, human, corn, lure,
huge, pumpkin, millimeter, familiar, succulent, insect, palm, nut,
blossom, pepper, extraordinarily, orchid, parasitic, pollinator, secrete,
rice, fluid, drug, partially, mycotrophic, mutualism, modified, anther,
ovule, attract, carpel, tomato, epiphytic, nutrient, digestive system,
potato, germination, growth, stage, purpose, ovary, wheat, cactus,
flagella, zygote, nuclei, triploid, endosperm, polar, nucleus, primary.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the principal difference between gymnosperms and
angiosperms?
2. May angiosperms be called a diverse plant group?
3. What are the reproductive structures in flowering plants?
4. Does sperm of flowering plants have any flagella?
5. What is called a double fertilization?
6. What is the earliest stage of seed growth?
7. What organisms are dependent on angiosperms?
Ex.4. Circle the best answer for each of the following.
1. In angiosperms, ovaries often mature into structures referred to
as:
a. seed coats
b. pollen grains
c. stems
d. fruits
2. Flowers contain the following:
a. roots
b. reproductive structures
c. stems
d. cones
56
3. The most abundant, diverse, and successful group of plants are:
a. conifers
b. gymnosperms
c. angiosperms
d. liverworts
4. The process of pollination is carried out mainly by:
a. wind or animals
b. water
c. plants touching other plants
d. underground fertilization
5. Pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the male anther to
the female part of the flower called the:
a. stigma
b. style
c. membrane
d. nucleus
Ex.5. Unscramble the vocabulary words in the first column. Match
the words to the definitions in the second column.
1) uftri
a. Flowering plants that have a seed with a single
cotyledon.
2) sfrleow
b. The transfer of pollen from the male part of the
flower to the female part of the flower.
3) scoomnto
c. Flowering plants that produce seeds that
possess two cotyledons.
4) pnooliltian
d. The ripened ovary that contains seeds in
angiosperms.
5) ooydcntel
e. The part of the seed that nourishes some plants;
referred to as the seed leaf.
6) cstdoi
f. Contain the
angiosperms.
57
reproductive
structures
in
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Angiosperms not only include plants with readily noticeable
flowers, but also include most trees such as oaks, elms, maples,
and birches.
2. The flowering plants, called angiosperms, are the largest group
of plants that live on land.
3. Most vertebrate animals, including humans, are either directly
or indirectly dependent on angiosperms.
4. Some are so tiny one needs a microscope to examine them,
while others, such as those of the Seychelles Island palm, can
be up to 6 meters long.
5. They contain both the female and male structures.
6. They vary, for example, from the huge Tasmanian Eucalyptus
trees, which have nearly as much mass as the giant redwoods,
to the tiniest duckweeds, which are less than 1 millimeter long.
7. The flowers may weigh less than 1 gram and remain functional
for only a few minutes, or they can weigh up to 9 kilograms
and be functional for months.
8. Flowers are considered to be modified stems bearing modified
leaves.
9. After fertilization, the seed containing the embryo along with
nutrients for its development is formed.
10. There are two kinds of cells that are involved in reproduction in
flowering plants.
11. When the seed falls on the ground, it may begin to grow.
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. Flowering plants are used __ humans __ many practical
purposes.
2. Most vertebrate __ animals, including humans, are either
directly or indirectly dependent __ angiosperms.
3. They vary, __ example, __ the huge Tasmanian Eucalyptus
trees, which have nearly as much mass as the giant redwoods,
__ the tiniest duckweeds, which are less than 1 millimeter long.
4. The flowering plants, called angiosperms, are the largest group
__ plants that live __ land.
5. There are two kinds __ cells that are involved __ reproduction
__ flowering plants.
58
6. The color and smell __ the flowers attract insects and birds
which help bring the pollen __ contact __ the carpel.
7. If the fruit is eaten __ an animal, the seed passes __ its
digestive system.
8. The flowers may weigh less than 1 gram and remain functional
__ only a few minutes, __ they can weigh __ __ 9 kilograms
and be functional __ months.
9. Some are so tiny one needs a microscope to examine them,
while others, such as those __ the Seychelles Island palm, can
be __ __ 6 meters long.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Flowering, infinite, nearly, tiniest, extraordinarily, pollinator,
functional, duckweed, attached, bearing, development, modified,
largest, germination, containing, noticeable, indirectly.
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Coconut
2. Wheat
3. Rice
4. Corn
5. Birch
6. Rose
7. Daisy
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Покрытосеменные – самый крупный отдел растений,
насчитывающий более 500 семейств, около 13 тыс. родов и
не менее 250 тыс. видов.
2. Существенную часть цветка представляет пестик,
образованный в результате срастания краев одного или
нескольких плодолистиков.
3. Для
покрытосеменных
характерны
максимально
редуцированные
мужской
(пылинка)
и
женский
(зародышевый мешок) гаметофиты. Необычайно и само
оплодотворении
у
покрытосеменных,
получившее
название двойного оплодотворения. Биологический смысл
59
этого процесса заключается в том, что только
одновременно с зародышем (а не раньше, как у
голосеменных) очень быстро формируется триплоидный (а
не гаплоидный) эндосперм.
Unit X.
MONOCOTS AND DICOTS
There are two types of flowering plants: Monocotyledones
(monocots) and Dicotyledones (dicots). The majority of flowering
plants are dicots. Dicots include
maples, oaks, and magnolias.
Monocots are grasses, wheat,
corn, and rice. Most of our food
supply comes from monocots.
The main difference is
the structure of the cotyledon. A
cotyledon is a tiny “seed leaf”
that emerges first from the seed
as the embryo develops. The
cotyledon absorbs nutrients for
the embryo until the true leaves
form.
It was John Ray (1628-1705), an English naturalist who, in his
book Methodus Plantarum Nova published in 1682, first classified the
flowering plants into monocots and dicots. The classification has been
widely adapted although there was uncertainty in applying the terms in
some species, particularly those which do not fit exactly into
either. However, based on overwhelming results of phylogenetic
studies (include chemical and molecular analyses), this classification
is modified.
60
Monocots are mostly herbaceous plants with long, narrow
leaves that have parallel veins (the main leaf veins run parallel to one
another). The flower parts of monocot flowers usually occur in threes
or multiples of three. For example, a flower might have three sepals,
three petals, six stamens, and a compound pistil consisting of three
fused carpels. Monocot seeds have a single cotyledon, or embryonic
seed leaf, and endosperm, nutritive tissue, is usually present in the
mature seed. In monocots, the vascular bundles in the stem cross
section are usually scattered or more complex of an arrangement as
compared to dicots. The roots are a fibrous root system.
Dicots may be herbaceous (for example, a tomato plant) or
woody (for example, a hickory tree). Their leaves vary in shape but
usually are broader than monocot leaves, with netted veins (branched
veins resembling a net). Flower parts usually occur in fours or fives or
multiples thereof. Two cotyledons are present in dicot seeds, and
endosperm is usually absent in the mature seed, having been absorbed
by the two cotyledons. The vascular bundles in the stem cross section
of dicots is arranged in a circle, or ring. The roots are a taproot
system.
61
ASSIGNMENTS
Ex.1. Copy out the words in bold-faced type, translate and learn them
by heart.
Ex.2. Pronounce correctly.
Dicotyledones, nutritive, grasses, vein, root, structure, cotyledon,
nutrient, woody, naturalist, dicot, adapt, particularly, chemical,
molecular, monocot, analysis,
herbaceous, narrow, parallel,
endosperm, scattered, fibrous, branched, monocotyledones, resemble,
absent, circle, taproot.
Ex.3. Answer the following questions.
1. An unknown plant is brought to you and your job is to
determine whether it is a monocot or a dicot. You observe that
the plant has 6 petals and its leaves have parallel veins. Is it a
monocot or a dicot?
2. What is the function of the endosperm?
3. What is the main difference between monocots and dicots?
4. Who first classified the flowering plants into monocots and
dicots?
5. How many cotyledons do monocot seeds have?
6. Is endosperm usually present in the mature dicot seed?
7. What type of root system do monocotyledons have?
8. What type of root system do dicotyledones have?
9. What is the difference between monocot and dicot pollen grain
structure?
10. What is called a cotyledon?
Ex.4. Fill in the table below.
Number of
Seed
Leaves
Type of
Leaf
Venation
Monocot
Dicot
62
Number of
Flower Parts
Type
of
Roots
Example
Ex.5. Complete the following statements.
1. The majority of flowering plants are ______.
2. _____ are grasses, wheat, corn, and rice.
3. A _____ is a tiny “seed leaf” that emerges first from the seed as
the embryo develops.
4. It was John Ray (1628-1705), an English naturalist who, in his
book Methodus Plantarum Nova published in 1682, first
classified the _____ _____ into monocots and dicots.
5. Monocots are mostly herbaceous plants with long, narrow
leaves that have parallel _____.
6. For example, a flower might have three sepals, three petals, six
stamens, and a compound _____ consisting of three fused
carpels.
7. Two cotyledons are present in dicot seeds, and _____ is usually
absent in the mature seed, having been absorbed by the two
cotyledons.
8. The vascular bundles in the stem cross section of dicots is
arranged in a _____.
Ex.6. Explain grammar structures used in the following sentences.
1. Flower parts usually occur in fours or fives or multiples thereof.
Two cotyledons are present in dicot seeds, and endosperm is
usually absent in the mature seed, having been absorbed by the
two cotyledons.
2. The classification has been widely adapted although there was
uncertainty in applying the terms in some species, particularly
those which do not fit exactly into either.
3. Their leaves vary in shape but usually are broader than
monocot leaves, with netted veins (branched veins resembling a
net).
4. However, based on overwhelming results of phylogenetic
studies (include chemical and molecular analyses), this
classification is modified.
5. In monocots, the vascular bundles in the stem cross section are
usually scattered or more complex of an arrangement as
compared to dicots.
6. The cotyledon absorbs nutrients for the embryo until the true
leaves form.
63
7. For example, a flower might have three sepals, three petals, six
stamens, and a compound pistil consisting of three fused
carpels.
8. Dicots may be herbaceous (for example, a tomato plant) or
woody (for example, a hickory tree).
Ex.7. Insert prepositions where necessary.
1. Monocots are mostly herbaceous __ plants __ long, narrow
leaves that have parallel veins (the main leaf veins run parallel
__ one another).
2. Two cotyledons are present __ dicot seeds, and endosperm is
usually absent __ the mature seed, having been absorbed __ the
two cotyledons.
3. A cotyledon is a tiny “seed leaf” that emerges first __ the seed
as the embryo develops.
4. Their leaves vary __ shape but usually are broader than
monocot leaves, __ netted veins (branched veins resembling a
net).
5. The flower parts __ monocot flowers usually occur __ threes or
multiples __ three.
6. Most __ our food supply comes __ monocots.
7. __ monocots, the vascular bundles __ the stem cross section are
usually scattered or more complex __ an arrangement as
compared __ dicots.
8. The vascular bundles __ the stem cross section __ dicots is
arranged __ a circle, or ring.
9. However, based __ overwhelming results __ phylogenetic
studies (include chemical and molecular analyses), this
classification is modified.
10. It was John Ray (1628-1705), an English naturalist who, __ his
book Methodus Plantarum Nova published __ 1682, first
classified the flowering plants __ monocots and dicots.
Ex.8. State the part of speech, say how the words are formed and
translate them into Russian.
Monocotyledones, uncertainty, applying, exactly, overwhelming,
nutritive, fused, embryonic, broader, resembling, classification, widely,
Dicotyledones, branched, consisting.
64
Ex. 9. Give the complete classification of plants.
1. Rice
2. Dandelion
3. Lily
4. Maple
Ex.10. Render the following sentences in English in written form.
Look through the text first.
1. Практическое значение однодольных и двудольных
растений одинаково велико. Однодольные дают человеку
пищу, например пшеница, рис, кукуруза, рожь и др. Среди
двудольных также есть важнейшие пищевые растения:
картофель, соя, подсолнечник, гречиха, батат, маниок и др.
2. Однодольные растения насчитывают около 64 000 видов (2
600 родов, 85-90 семейств). Они представляют собой
преимущественно травы - однолетние, двулетние и
многолетние.
3. Отличия однодольных и двудольных:
- у однодольных в семени одна семядоля (зародышевый
листок), а у двудольных – две.
- у однодольных корневая система мочковатая, а у
двудольных – стержневая.
- у однодольных жилкование листьев параллельное, а у
двудольных – сетчатое.
- количество элементов цветка у однодольных кратно
трем, а у двудольных – пяти.
65
Glossary
Unit I
Chlorophyll – хлорофилл
Oxygen – кислород
Photosynthesis – фотосинтез
Carbon dioxide – диоксид углерода, углекислый газ
Seed – семя
Flowering plant – цветущее растение
Annual – однолетник
Zinnia – цинния
Biennial – двулетник
Growing season – вегетационный период
Root – корень
Bloom – цветок, цветение
Perennial – многолетник
Herbaceous – травянистый
Stem – стебель
Woody – древесный
Evergreen – вечнозеленый
Deciduous –листопадный
Semi-evergreen – полувечнозеленый
Unit II
Science – наука
Plant parts – органы растений
Environment – окружающая среда, внешние условия
Respond – реагировать, отзываться на ч-л, отвечать
Kingdom – царство
Leaf – лист, мн. - leaves
Genus – род, мн. - genera
Apple – яблоня, яблоко
Plum – слива
Strawberry – земляника
66
Rose – роза
Petal
Stamens
Family
Pea
Bean
Characteristics
Genetics
Breed
Species
Variety
Propagation
Genetic change
Offspring
Asexually
Vegetatively
Cross
Crop
Binomial name
Unit III
hierarchical – иерархический
binomial system of naming species – бинарная (биномиальная)
номенклатура
prior - прежний, бывший; предшествующий
polynomial nomenclature – полиномиальные названия
discover – находить, обнаруживать, открывать
ovate-lanceolate leaves – листья яйцевидно-ланцетной формы
spike – соцветие колос
terete – цилиндрический, круглый в сечении; конусообразный
scape – стебель, черешок, черенок
prune - обрезать; подрезать, сокращать, удалять, упрощать
trivial name – тривиальное название
Latium – Лациум
Unit IV
prokaryote – прокариот, доядерный организм
67
Eubacteria – Эубактерии
Archaea – Археи
eukaryote – эукариот
Thallophytes - низшие растения, слоевищные,
или талломные растения, Таллофиты
Bryophytes – Мохообразные, Мхи, Моховидные, Бриофиты
Tracheophytes – сосудистые растения
gametophyte – гаметофит
sporophyte – спорофит
xylem – ксилема
phloem – флоэма
nutrients – питательные вещества
seedless plants – споровые растения
seeded plants – семенные растения
Gymnosperms – Голосеменные
Angiosperms – Покрытосеменные
Landscape – ландшафт, пейзаж
thallus – таллом, слоевище
alternation of generations – чередование поколений
Unit V
alga – водоросль, мн.ч. – algae
unicellular - одноклеточный
multicellular - многоклеточный
protists – простейшие
bacterium – бактерия, мн.ч. – bacteria
blue-green algae – сине-зеленые водоросли
fungus – гриб, мн.ч. – fungi
lichen – лишайник
asexual reproduction – бесполое размножение
sexual reproduction – половое размножение
aquatic ecosystem – водная экосистема
beta-carotene – бета-каротин
alginate – альгинат, слепочная масса
fertilizer – удобрение
shallow water – мелководье
sublittoral zone – зона материковой отмели
sub-tidal – приливо-отливная зона, зона прилива
coralline algae – кораллиновые водоросли
68
Unit VI
vascular tissue – проводящая ткань
osmosis – осмос
diffusion – диффузия
rhizoid – ризоид
parenchyma – паренхима
cuticle – кутикула
peat mosses – Сфагновые мхи, Белые мхи, Сфагниды
granite mosses – Андреевые мхи, Чёрные мхи
leafy mosses – Бриевые мхи, Зелёные мхи, Брииды
harvest – урожай, собирать урожай
planting mix – посадочная смесь для растений
weed - растущий как сорняк
Spanish moss – Испанский мох
Irish moss – Ирландский мох
Reindeer moss – олений мох, Ягель
Lycopod – плауновидное растение
liver shaped (thallose, lobed) liverworts – слоевищные печеночные
мхи, слоевищные печеночники
leafy liverworts – листостебельные печеночные мхи,
листостебельные печеночники
potting medium – посадочный грунт, почвенная смесь,
почвогрунт
umbrella-shaped structures – образования, по форме напоминающие
зонтики
bag-like structure – коробочка на ножке
fragmentation – фрагментация
gemma – выводковая почка, мн.ч. – gemmae
gemma cup – выводковая корзиночка
thallus – таллом, слоевище, мн.ч. – thalli
hornworts – Антоцеротовые мхи
stoma – устьице, мн.ч. - stomata
69
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Unit I ……………………………………….................2
Unit II…………………………………………………6
Unit III………………………………………………..11
Unit IV……………………………………………......16
70
5. Unit V………………………………………………....23
6. Unit VI………………………………………………..29
7. Unit VII……………………………………………….37
8. Unit VIII……………………………………………...46
9. Unit IX………………………………………………..54
10. Unit X………………………………………………....60
71