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1. TAXONOMY, ORIGIN, MORPHOLOGY AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS Family : Euphorbiaceae GENUS : HEVEA 1.1 Introduction Rubber refers to a group of materials which are highly elastic. Rubbers are not strong and flexible. These properties are added to rubber through various treatments. Synthetic rubber (SR) is a byproduct of petroleum industry. Natural rubber (NR) is an agricultural commodity and it is a byproduct of plant cell metabolism. Most rubber producing plants are native to tropics. Castella Species (sp): native to Tropical America Manihot sp: native to Tropical America Funtima elastica: native to Africa Parthenium argentatum: native to Central America Hevea (sp): native to Tropical America At present almost all natural rubber is extracted from Hevea. Hevea brasiliensis is the species that is cultivated for the extraction of rubber contained in its latex. Most of the basic concepts of NR industry were developed in 18th and 19th centuries These concepts fall into two main components viz. a. Agricultural or Agronomic component and b. Technology component. Agricultural component includes identification of species, propagation, exploitation and establishment of organized plantations. 1.2 Taxonomy First botanical description of genus Hevea and of the type species Hevea guianensis was by Fusee Aublet in 1775. In 1779 L.C Richard proposed the generic name Siphonia as equivalent to Aublet’s Hevea. J. Mueller Argoviensis in 1865 grouped all the species, H. brasiliensis, H. pauciflora H. spruceana, H. rigidifolia together under Hevea. Schultes (1977) reviewed the history of infrageneric classification of Siphonia and Hevea. He recognized two sub genera under genus Hevea: i subgenus: Hevea and ii subgenus: Microphyllae. 1 Up to Argoviensis, taxonomic treatments were by botanists in European herbaria on materials, much of it collected by Richard Pruce during his explorations of Amazon and Andes from 1849 to 1864. Schultes in 1987 has also reviewed the species recognized in the genus by previous workers. Different numbers of species recognized by taxonomists before Schultes are given below. Taxonomist M Argoviensis Huber Pax Ducke Seibert Schultes No. of Species 11 24 17 12 08 10 Year 1874 1906 1910 1935 1947 1987 Previously, rank of species was given to what later recognized as local variants or varieties. Thus in the taxonomic treatment of Shultez only 10 species have been recognized. All are grouped under subgenus Hevea except one. Full taxonomic classification after Schultes (1977) Family : Euphorbiaceae Genus : Hevea subgenus : Hevea subgenus : Microphyllae Species under two subgenera subgenus: Hevea H. guianensis subgenus : Microphyllae H. microphylla H. brasiliensis H. pauciflora H. spruceana H. rigidifolia H. benthamiana H. nitida H. camporum H. camargoana 2 1.3 Origin and distribution Hevea species have originated in tropical America and are naturally found in the Amazon basin and parts of the uplands adjacent to it. Cultivated species, H. brasiliensis, occupies most of the South of the Amazon river and as the natural stands of this species extends to the West of the river it penetrates the North of the river (Fig. 1.1) Fig. 1.1 Distribution of Hevea Sp. along the Amazon basin and its adjacent highlands. (Source: Natural rubber: Biology, Cultivation and Technology Pub. by Elsevier. ) 3 1.4 Morphology 1.4.1. Growth form Under conditions of optimum development H. brasiliensis is one of the tallest in the genus and grows up to 40m in height. 1.4.2. Pattern of growth H. brasiliens winters strongly. During wintering all the foliage is shed and the trees are bare for a brief period. Young shoots appear bearing young foliage distally and scale leaves proximally scale leaves often bear flowers in their axils(Fig. 1.2). 1.4.3. Foliage Trifoliate leaves, assume various positions as they develop. Color too changes with maturity, from copper brown through apple green to dark or light green. 1.4.4. Flowers Male and female flowers are borne separately in the same inflorescence (Fig 1.3). Main branches of the panicle end in female flowers (Fig. 1.3 & Fig. 1.4a & 1.4b). Male flowers have 10 anthers arranged on central column or axis (Fig.1.4f). Female flowers have sessile stigma lobes situated on the ovary (Fig. 1.4g). Fig 1.2. Branch of H. brasiliensis with flowers to show relative position of inflorescence and leaves. (Source: Outlines of perennial crop breeding in the tropics Pub. By Veenman & Zonen, Wageningen) 4 Fig 1.3. Inflorescence of H. brasiliensis female (A) and male (B) flowers. ( (Source: Outlines of perennial crop breeding in the tropics Pub. By Veenman & Zonen, Wageningen). 5 Fig.1.4. Details of inflorescence and flowers. a & b. Branchlet of an inflorescence with terminal female flowers and laterally inserted male flowers c. Male flowers; d & e. Female flowers: d. before opening, e. after opening (anthesis), f. A partially dissected male flower to show two tiers of stamens arranged on the central column and g. Dissected female flower showing sessile stigma lobes. (Source: Outlines of perennial crop breeding in the tropics Pub. By Veenman & Zonen, Wageningen.) 1.4.5. Fruit Fruit is commonly a Tri-locular capsule containing 3 seeds (Fig. 1.5). Rarely four locular fruits are also found. Fruit dehisces explosively due to twisting, (on drying), of woody valves (Fig. 1.6). 6 Fig. 1.5. Rubber fruit showing 3 locules. Fig.1.6. Showing woody endocarp after matured fruit dehisced. 1.4.6. Seeds Seeds of H. brasiliensis are rounded (Fig.1.7) Surface is shiny and mottled. Average fresh weight of a is about 5g. Seeds lose their viability rather rapidly. Fig 1.7. Seeds of H. bresiliensis 7 2. HEVEA CLONES AND FACTORS INFLUENCING THEIR SELECTION FOR PLANTING 2.1 Clone Clone can be defined as a vegetatively propagated colony or progeny of a single mother plant. Thus individuals of the progeny or colony have the same genetic make up as their mother. But in vegetatively propagated rubber plants only scion is vegetatively propagated. Rootstock comes from open pollinated seeds. 2.2. Important characters in a rubber clone Yield is the primary character of economic importance. Two most important secondary characters, in a rubber clone are a) Vigour b) Tolerance to major foliar diseases 2.3. Breeding objective: The main objective in the Hevea breeding program had been to breed high yielding clones, which are vigorous and tolerant to major leaf diseases. 2.4. Economic importance of yield, vigor and tolerance to major foliar diseases 2.4.1. Yield High yielding clones increase the productivity through increased yield per tree per tapping. Since there is no additional cost involved, use of genetically improved high yielding clones is the cheapest way to increase the productivity. Use of high yielding clones (HYC) is particularly important in perennial crops such as rubber. In perennial crops, unlike in annual where replanting cycle is short, once a plantation is established it is going to be in the field for a long period and therefore if a wrong clone is selected one has to bear the consequences for a long time. In rubber recommended replanting cycle is about 30 years, including the immature period. 2.4.2. Vigour Vigour determines the tappability of a rubber tree irrespective of its age. Vigorous clones reach tappability early and such clones give quick returns on investment. Vigour also contributes to high yield through a) Longer tapping cuts b) Increased drainage area and c) Increased in the number of latex vessels rings. Vigorous clones give higher volume of timber at uprooting for replanting. 8 Timber is an important byproduct which gives an additional income. 2.4.3. Tolerance to major foliar diseases: Diseases influence the income in two ways a) Direct loss of yield and b) Increase in COP due to additional inputs such as agrochemicals and labor to control the diseases. 2.5. Other important secondary characters: a) Color of latex. b) Tolerance to wind damage. c) Tolerance to brown blast. Breeders cannot breed HYC possessing all the secondary characters. A suitable clone for a particular area can be selected by considering several factors. 2.6. Factors that control the choice of clones for commercial planting: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Rainfall. Elevation. Diseases prevalent in the area. Tolerance / susceptibility to diseases. Availability of budwood / planting material. Clonal composition on the estate. 2.7 Clone recommendation 2.7.1. Clone recommendation for the plantation sector Group I: Each clone to be planted up to 10% of the extent RRIC 100*, RRIC 102, RRIC 121, RRIC 1301, RRISL 203 PB 2601 RRIC 100 has been temporarily removed from group I as a very large extent of rubber land in Sri Lanka has been planted with this clone. But it can be used in replanting of old RRIC 100 clearings in order to maintain the extent. Group II: Each clone to be planted up to 3% of the extent RRISL 201, RRISL 205, RRISL 206, RRISL 210 RRISL 211, RRISL 215 RRISL 216, RRISL 217, RRISL 219, RRISL 2001, RRISL 2003, BPM 24, PB 217, PB28/59, PB 2351 9 Group III: To be planted as Estate/RRI collaborative clone trials. Each clone to be planted up to 2 hectares. RRISL 221 RRISL 2000 RRISL 2005 RRISL 222 RRISL 223 PB 255 RRISL 208 RRISL 225 PR 255 RRISL 219 RRISL 226 PR 305 RRISL 220 RRII 105 GPS 1 PR 255 RRISL 2006 PR 305 RRISL 2002 RRIM 712 RRISL 2004 PB 255 1 These clones should be tapped at 67% intensity until intensification before uprooting. 2.7.2.Clone recommendation for smallholders and private estate Group (a) RRIC 100, This is recommended for non traditional area. Group (b) RRIC 102, RRIC 121, RRISL 203 Group (c) RRISL 2001 Thos recommended for holdings more than 5 ha in extent and the area planted should not exceed 10% of the total extent 2.7.3 Clone recommendation for planting at high elevations (above 300m up to 900m) Group (a) RRIC 100 and RRIC 130 Group (b) RRIC 102, RRIC 133 and RRISL 206 Each clone in group B should not exceed 5ha in a plantation 10 Notes: RRISL 221 should not be planted in human pockets. RRIC 130 is prone to wind damage and should not be planted in areas prone to strong wind. Clones RRIC 130, RRISL 217, PB 217. PB 235, PB 28/59 and PB 260 should be tapped at 67% intensity i.e. 1/2Sd2 until intensification.. In the intermediate zone planting may be extended to areas beyond 900 m elevation on trial basis wit the collaboration of RRISL. 11 3. ROOTSTOCK AND BUDWOOD NURSERIES 3.1. Introduction In Sri Lanka budgrafted planting material is used in the establishment of commercial rubber plantations. To produce budgrafted rubber plants rootstocks and budwood are essential. To produce rootstocks and budwood, it is necessary to establish and maintain rootstock nurseries and budwood nurseries respectively. 3.2. Production of rootstock To produce rootsock it is necessary to establish i. Germination beds (to germinate seeds) and ii. Rootstock nurseries (to raise germinated seeds up to bud grafting). 3.2.1 Germination beds Beds should be one meter in width. Length can vary depending on the availability of suitable land and on the space requirement. One square meter (1m x 1m) area can accommodate about 1000 seeds. Beds should be covered with a layer of fresh river sand up to a thickness of 4 to 5 cm. Main seed fall season in wet areas is August and September and in dry areas seeds fall in February and March. Fresh and heavier seeds should be selected as they germinate early and produce vigorous plants. Press the seed down until topside of the seed nearly in level with the surface of sand (Fig. 3.1a). a b Fig. 3.1. Seeds sown in germination bed (a) and correct stage to transplant in the stock seedling nursery (b). (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I Pub. by RRSL) 12 Water daily, provide shade and protect with a wire mesh to protect it from animals. Seeds start germinating after about 2 weeks and should be transplanted in the rootstock seedling nursery with first sign of germination (Fig.3.1b). Remove germinated seeds. Put the non-germinated seeds back in the nursery. Collect germinated seeds every other day on 4 occasions and after that discard non-germinators. It has been observed that only about 50% of sown seeds germinate during this period (15 days). Germinated seeds can be used to start ground rootsock seedling nurseries or poly bag rootstock seedling nurseries. 3.2.2. GROUND ROOTSTOCK SEEDLING NURSERIES Ground rootstock seedlings are used for brown budding and green budding Nursery site Site must be well drained, flat or undulating. Soil conservation is necessary if undulating. Site should be close to a continuous and readily available source of water. Land preparation Loosen the soil to a depth of 90cm. Remove all stones, pebbles and old stumps. Beds should be separated by paths and drains. Planting distance Germinated seeds from the germination bed are transplanted in the rootstock nursery. Shade should be provided to young seedlings using Bracken fern. Two planting distances are recommended: i. Seedlings planted in pairs of rows on 23cm triangular spacing. Spacing between centers of two adjacent pairs of rows is 60cm. (Fig. 3.2a) and ii. If nursery space is not a problem single rows with spacing of 15cm within rows and 60cm between two adjacent rows can be adopted. (Fig. 3.2b) Advantage: A vigorous growth due to more space; less foliar diseases. 13 Fig. 3.2. Double row (a) and single row (b) spacing in ground rootstock seedling. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I Pub. By RRISL). Manuring Mixture depends on the soil group to which soil series belong. For this purpose rubber soils has been classified under seven series. Before planting 3:1 mixture of imported rock phosphate (IRP) and dolomite is used for group I and group III soils at the rate of 500kg/ha. Fertilizers should be well forked into a depth of 15-20cm. For group II soils (Matale Series): Only IRP at the rate of 350kg/ha. Is recommended’ After planting Soil series Mixture Soil Group Sul. of Amm. Urea based based mixture Parambe GP I R/SA 9 : 12 : 4 : 2 R/U 15 : 15 : 7 Matale GP II R/SA 9 : 11 : 11 R/U 12 : 14 : 14 Homagama Boralu Deniyaya Agalawatta Ratnapura GP III R/SA 8 : 9 : 9 : 4 R/U 12 : 14 : 14 Dosage: Urea based mixture - 25g/plant + 5g Kieserite/plant 14 Ammonia based mixture - 30g/plant In Matale series 30g/plant Frequency: Every 3 months starting from one month after planting in the nursery bed up to about 2 months before grafting. Thinning or culling of weak plants: Remove weak, diseased and stunted plants during 1st four months after planting. Culling percentage is about 40% Life span: For brown budding 2 years For green budding 2 rounds of budding Stock seedlings that do not reach buddable girth within one year will not produce a good quality budded stump. LATEST RECOMMANDATION OF RRISL IS TO HAVE ONLY POLYBAG ROOTSTOCK NURSERIES AND BUDGRAFT ROOTSTOCKS RAISED IN POLYBAGS USING YOUNG BUDDING TECHNIQUE. 3.2.3. POLYBAG ROOTSTOCK SEEDLING NURSERIES Stock seedlings are raised in polythene bags. They are used as rootstocks for young budding. 3.2.3a.Specification of Polythene Black, gusseted tubing of gauge 500 or 300 3.2.3b.Dimension of bags ( Lay flat Dimensions) Width :15 cm or 17 cm Length :37 cm or 45 cm Perforate bags before filling Bags should be filled with top soil preferably having loamy texture. Sieve the soil and then mix thoroughly rock phosphate at the rate of 50g per bag, before filling. 3.2.3c. Polybag Nursery Site : Close to a source of readily available water throughout the year. Arrangement and spacing of polybags : 15 Filled bags are arranged in 15cm deep trenches either as single rows or double rows. Distance between 2 adjacent double rows is 60cm (Fig.3.3a). Distance between 2 adjacent single rows should be 45 cm (Fig.3.3b). Seeds : Selection and germination of seeds are same as for ground rootstock nurseries Fig. 3.3. Double (a) and (b) single row arrangement of polybags in ground rootstock nurseries. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I Pub. By RRISL). LATEST RECOMMENDATION OF RRISL IS TO ADOPT SINGLE ROW ARREANGEMENT (FIG 3.3B) WHEN ESTABLISHING POLYBAG ROOTSIOCK NURSERIES Planting in polybags: As soon as seeds germinate in the germination bed, plant one germinated seed per bag. After 7 days remove weak or diseased seedlings and replace with fresh germinated seeds. Watering : Watering should be done daily. 3.2.3d. Manuring Soluble fertilizers are used therefore they are expensive. When supplied in soluble form nutrients are absorbed quickly by plants and hence will respond quickly and show fast growth. This is important in young budding as stock seedlings should be in buddable stage in 3 to 4 months. Fertilizer recommendations for polybag stock nurseries are based on soil groups (Tables 3.1a & 3.1b) 16 Table 3.1a. Soil types, soil groups and recommended fertilizer mixtures: District Soil type Group Mixture Kegalle & Kurunegala Parambe I R/YB 13: 17:6:3 Matale Matale II R/YB 13: 16 : 16 Ratnapura,Awissawella, Badulla & Moneragala All other Soil Types III R/YB 9: 12 : 11:4 Table 3.1b. Composition by weight: Mixture R/YB 13:17:6:3 R/YB 13:16:16 R/YB 9:12:11:4 Sul: of Amm. 31 32 23 Diamm Phosphate 38 35 25 Sul : of Potash 13 33 23 Epson Salt 18 39 Total 100 100 100 Formulation 1 (used in polybag rootstock seedlings before bud grafting) Preparation of liquid formulations: 112g of the appropriate mixture dissolved in 4.5 liters of water. Rate of application: 50 ml of the formulation I per bag. Time and period of application : commencing at 2 weeks after planting in polybags up to 2 weeks before bud grafting. Frequency of application: once in two weeks. 3.2.3e.Disease control Since polybag plants are kept close to each other routine disease control measures are necessary to produce healthy rootstock seedlings. Spray weekly one from each of the following groups alternatively. Group A Copper Sandoz or Harcross Copper oxychloride 3 g to 4 g in one liter of water. Group B Diathane or Captan or Antracol 3 g to 4 g in one liter of water. If Oidium is present spray Thiovit 3g in one liter of water during January March period at weekly intervals. 17 3.3. Production of budwood Budwood or bud sticks from which buds are removed for grafting are obtained from nurseries established for this purpose. Brown budwood nurseries Brown budwood to obtain buds from stems of 12 to 18 months of growth. These buds are used in brown budding Green budwood nurseries To obtain buds for green budding, young branches of 9 to 10 or 6 to 8 weeks, depending on the age, are required. Location: Flat or undulating land Well drained soil If sloping, beds prepared on contours 3.3.1. Spacing: i. Spacing For brown budwood nurseries Convenient width for brown budwood nursery beds is 4.25m. This allows 4 rows of plants. Distance between rows is 90cm and plants within the rows are spaced at 120cm and triangular planting adopted. 60cm margin is allowed on either side. If necessary 30cm drain should be provided. (Fig. 3.4). Fig. 3.4. Layout of a brown budwood nursery bed. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I pub. By RRISL). ii. Spacing for green budwood nurseries 18 More spacing is given since plants are maintained as bushes. A conenient width of green budwood nursery bed would be to have 4 rows of plants spaced 120cm apart and a margin of 60cm on either side with drain of 30cm wide where necessary. On sloping land drain should be prepared on the contour. Spacing the plants at 1m x 2m will give more space for the new shoots to grow after pruning. With this spacing 1 hectare of nursery can accomadate about 5,000 plants, depending on the terrain 2.3.2. Establishment of budwood nurseries Planting materials to establish green and brown budwood nurseries: Bare root budded stumps or polybag plants can be used. Obtain authentic materials from RRISL. Planting hole: 60cm x 65cm and 75cm deep. Season: May/June or October/November. Care: Regular removal of stock shoots. 3.3.3. Manuring. Depends on the age. Same recommendation as for young immature rubber in commercial clearings. 2.3.4. Harvesting of budwood 3.3.4.i. Harvesting brown budwood Prior to harvesting paint a colour band 15cm above the bud union. No shoot is allowed below this band. First harvest could be made 12-18 months after field establishment. Fig. 3.5. First harvest of budwood from a new brown budwood nursery. (Source: (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I pub. By RRISL). 19 Cut is made 30cm, at an angle of 450, above the bud union (Fig. 3.5) i.e. 15 cm above the colour band. Two buds are allowed to develop from the region above the colour band for the next crop of budwood. When these branches are 12 to 18 months old 2nd harvest could be made. (Fig. 3.6a) Fig. 3.6. Recommended method for collecting brown budwood from brown budwood nursery. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I pub. By RRISL). Four buds, two from each branch, are allowed to develop for the 3rd crop. (Fig. 3b). This process can be continued till the nursery is uprooted. By about 6 to 10 years there will be about 7 to 8 branches (Fig.3.6c) per plant in budwood nurseries, 15 to 20 buds per meter of budwood can be obtained. 3.3.4.ii. Harvesting of green budwood a. From an old brown budwood nurseruy In an old brown budwood nursery branches are pollarded, just above a whorl of leaves, at a point where bark has turned brown. Shoots that develop from the axils of the leaves can be harvested as green budwood when they Are about 8 to 10 weeks old. Once the shoots are harvested another round of green budwood can be harvested by pollarding the branches above next whorl of leave, below (Fig. 3.7a, b and c) 20 Fig.3.7. Successive pruning above leaf whorls to induce axillary buds to green shoots to be used as green budwood. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I pub. By RRISL). b. From green budwood nursery(For Young and Green budding). Prior to harvesting budwood, colour band should be painted on every plant 15cm above the bud union. No shoot should be allowed to appear below this colour band (REFER TO THE COLOUR CODE FOR CLONE IDENTIFICATION ). When the plants are about 8 months they grow up to about 5 – 6 leaf whorl stage.. When these shoots are pruned just above a whorl of leaves (Fig. 3.7) lateral shoots will grow from axillary buds and these shoots can be harvested, in 8 to 10 weeks, as bud sticks for bud grafting. At the end of the bud grafting season all the plants are cut back at 30 cm and 2 stems per plant are allowed to develop which may be subjected to pruning and harvesting in the following year. Usually more than two shoots appear and extra shoots can be allowed to grow and these extra shoots can be harvested leaving two shoots (3.7d) if two rounds of bud grafting per year is carried out (See the time schedule (3.1) for budded plant production). If only one round of bud grafting is carried out extra shoots should be removed as they appear allowing only two shoots (3.7e) Stagger the pruning to ensure a continuous supply of green budwood throughout the grafting season. Two to three scale buds per stick are available for bud grafting. About 50% of the axillary buds can also be used if leaves are pruned at the base, leaving the 21 petiole intact, 3 to 4 weeks before grafting. By this time petioles will dry up and fall off so that axillary buds could be used in green budding. Harvesting of budwood, green or brown, should be done early in the morning. Fig. 3.7e Fig.3.7d 3.3.4.iii. Harvesting of budwood for young budding Very similar to that of harvesting green budwood, but age of the budwood is only 6 to 8 weeks. Labeling, packing and storage of budwood Write the clone name or number on cut ends (for brown budwood) by using a copying pencil or else another suitable labeling method should be adopted. In the case of brown budwood cut ends should be sealed by immersing in molten paraffin wax and stored in moistened sawdust if transported over a long distance. For transporting over a short distance, brown budwood is wrapped in banana sheath. Green budwood is transported in sealed polyhene sleeves and unlike in brown budwood cut ends of green budwood are not sealed with molten paraffin wax. Clone identification labels are attached to or inserted in polythene sleeves Precautions to be adopted in a budwood multiplication nursery Only the authentic material obtained from the Rubber Research Institute should be used in the establishment of budwood nurseries. More than one clone should never be planted in one block or bed. Surround each block or bed, planted with a particular clone, by two strands of galvanized wire. A separate access should be provided for each clonal block or bed. The correct nomenclature of the clone should be displayed using permanent lettering in each block or bed. 22 Over budding of existing clones with new clones should never be practiced. A plan of each nursery, with planting points of each clone correctly numbered, should be maintained. If possible, the cutting of budwood from various points should be recorded along with the date and number. The name of consignee of the budwood should also be recorded for future reference. Schedule 3.1. Time schedule for budded plant production. 3. 4. Types of buds Three types of buds can be recognized (Fig. 3.8) on a rubber branch. Leaf scar buds and scale leaf buds are used for brown budding. For green budding and young budding, scale leaf buds are used and also 50% of axillary buds can be used, if they are pretreated as described earlier. 23 Fig.3.8. Different types of buds in a budwood stick. (Source: Handbook of rubber Vol. I pub. By RRISL). 24