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Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; Chapter 15 This chart is great!!!!!!!!!!!!!! THEORIES OF PERSONALITY PERSONALITY: A person’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Perspective Emphasis Theorists Important Concepts Assessment Techniques Treatment Psychoanalytic Behavior & personality spring from unconscious conflicts & early childhood experiences. The theory places an emphasis on sexual instincts. Sigmund Freud Structure of the mind (Id, ego, & superego); the 5 psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latent, & genital); defense mechanisms; libido; Electra Complex; penis envy (yeah, right!); Oedipal Conflict; castration anxiety. Projective tests (consisting of ambiguous material) such as the Rorschach & Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Insight therapy involving: free association, analysis of dreams (i.e., latent vs. manifest content); resistance, interpretation; positive & negative transference. Psycho-analytic: Neo-Freudians Emphasis is still on the unconscious, but less of an emphasis on sexual instincts. Jung Personal unconscious (much like Freud’s) AND collective unconscious made up of archetypes— shadow, persona, anima, animus, etc. Main personality traits consist of introversion/extroversion & rationality/irrationality. Similar to the above. Jung also examined the drawings of mandalas to penetrate the collective unconscious. Insight therapy but with less of an emphasis on sexual instincts. Adler Inferiority vs superiority; inferiority complex; fictional finalism. Horney Anxiety is a stronger motivating source than sexual impulses. Erikson Eight stages of psychosocial development; parentchild relationships. William James Focus is on the "self"—the material self, social self, spiritual self, & pure ego. Carl Rogers Actualizing tendency; fully functioning person; unconditional positive regard. Questionnaires and empathetic interviews that assess selfconcept. Person (or client) centered therapy incorporating active listening & unconditional positive regard. Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of needs; self-actualization. Humanistic An optimistic view of human nature that emphasizes the self and the fulfillment of each person’s unique potential. Perspective Emphasis Biomedical; Neuropsychological, or physiological psychology Based on the "Medical Model" which states that mental illnesses are similar to physical illnesses in that both are caused by the physical malfunction of certain systems within the body. The malfunction may be linked to genetics. Trait Emphasizes the description & measurement of specific personality traits among individuals. Theorists Important Concepts Assessment Treatment Most mental illnesses are caused by a "chemical imbalance" in the brain. Ex: the neurotransmitter Serotonin has been linked to depression and Dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia. Stress-diathesis model of mental illness. There are no definitive medical tests for mental illness. But, advances are likely in brainimaging techniques Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT); psycho-surgery (lobotomy); drug therapies: anti-depressant (Prozac), antipsychotic (Clozapine, Thorazine), anti-anxiety (Valium, Xanex), & antibipolar (Lithium). Sheldon Endomorphs, mesomorphs, & ectomorphs. Allport Identified 200 stable personality traits. OBJECTIVE personality inventories that assess different traits (e.g., MMPI, 16 PF, CPI, etc.) Cattell Through factor-analysis, identified 16 basic personality traits. Trait theorists are NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT interested in therapy or the origins of mental illness. They simply want to MEASURE & DESCRIBE personality traits. 1 Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Eysenk Identified two personality trait dimensions: stability/instability & introversion/extroversion. Name; Behavioral Behavior is a product of antecedents & consequences in the environment. The importance of "cognition" is dismissed or minimized. B. F. Skinner Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement. ABC’s of behavior: Antecedents, behaviors, & consequences. Behavioral observations and ratings. Behavioral therapies: a. Classical conditioning: counterconditioning (both aversive conditioning and systematic desensitization). b. Operant conditioning: token economies. Social-cognitive (or Cognitivebehavioral) Emphasis is on learning (behavioral) AND conscious cognitive processes. Bandura Social learning theory (observation & modeling); reciprocal determinism; Rotter Internal vs. external locus of control. Behavioral observations & questionnaires assessing people’s thoughts and feelings. Rational-emotive therapy (Albert Ellis); Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression. Seligman Learned helplessness. 2 Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; 3 Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; 4 Tripken Name B. Whorf Mary Ainsworth Carol Gilligan Stanley Schacter Harlow Elizabeth Loftus Bowlby Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction School Cog Developmental Discovery Inborn Linguistic relativity theory – language acquisition Placed infants in “strange situations” to study attachment theory Developmental Challenged universality of Kohlberg’s theory of moral dev. Mot and Emo Two factor theory Behaviorist Developmental Cog Attachment; cloth/wire monkey experiment (infant had stronger bond with cloth monkey – need for affection creates a stronger bond) Demonstrated problems with eye witness testimony and constructive memory/false memory Attachment; watched babies, theorized that secure attachment early on leads to ability to develop close personal relationships later in life States of consciousness, psychosexual development, Id, ego, superego; defense mechanisms Inferiority complex; Will to Power and striving for superiority/perfection Collective unconscious, anima, animus, dreams Groundbreaking work on neuroticism; concept of womb envy, criticism of penis envy Used factor analysis to determine surface traits and 16 source traits Reduced behavioral characteristics in the dictionary from 18,000 words to 42 Coined the “Big 3” dimensions of personality: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism Groundbreaking research with dogs on classical conditioning Freud Psychodynamic (Developmental) Psychoanalytic Adler Psychoanalytic Jung Horney Neo freudian Psychoanalytic Cattell Allport Trait Theory Trait Theory Eysenck Trait Theory Pavlov Behaviorist Learning Behaviorist Behaviorist Watson Skinner Bandura Kohlberg Erikson Rogers Piaget Name; Founder of behaviorism (American) Described different types of reinforcement in his studies of operant conditioning: skinner box Behaviorist/Cogni Learning and Personality: modeling and reciprocal determinism, self tive efficacy Studied observational learning (aka vicarious learning) in his Bobo Doll study; also created the theory of reciprocal determinism, a socialcognitive theory of personality (external and internal determinants of behavior interact reciprocally) Cognitive Came up with stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, Developmental conventional, and post conventional) in development of moral judgment Psychoanalytic – He said the world gets bigger, failure is cumulative, and described Neo Freudian stages of development that include an adolescent identity crisis. Developmental Psychosocial development, 8 stages – stage theorist Humanist Person (client) Centered therapy and unconditional positive regard / Personality PSI absolute listening skills.The founder of the humanistic approach, he described an “actualizing tendency” – towards fulfilling your potential. Cognitive Stage theorist - He described 4 stages of cognitive development Dev. (sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal 5 Tripken Asch Milgram Zimbardo Ainsworth Chomsky Darwin Aristotle Plato Ekman Festinger Heider Hermann Ebbinghaus Titchner Wundt James Hilgard Hull Izard Kagan Koehler Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; operational); also assimilation and accommodation Behaviorist/ Studied compliance and conformity – by putting subjects in groups, Social PSI asking simple questions where some assistants had been told to give wrong answers Behaviorist/ Studied obedience to authority by putting subjects in a situation where Social they believed they were shocking somenone, potentially fatally Behaviorist/ Studied instiutional norms; Stanford prison experiment Social Behaviorist/ Categories babies as securely attached, insecure-avoidant, or insecureObject Relations ambivalent (insecurely attached don’t deal with new experiences as well, may have problems with relationships later in life) Cognitive Deep structure of language and the idea of a built-in language (linguistic) acquisition device: Critical theory hypothesis for lang. acquisition Evolutionary Form follows function; motivation is explained by biological necessity Greek Studied the soul; identified reason and physical faculties as separate elements Greek Described levels of consciousness in his “Cave” Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures (but that display rules differ) Cognitive Cognitive dissonance Cognitive Pioneer of attribution theory Cognitive One of the first researchers on memory; came up with the idea of using strings of nonsense syllables to research memory Structuralist Founder of structuralism, the analysis of mental structures (early schools) Introspection Founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig; observed and recorded your own perceptions, thoughts, feelings Functionalist Like Darwin, this early theorist studied how an individual adapts to and functions in their environment Cognitive/Behavi Developed the idea of the hidden observer during hypnosis orist Behaviorist/Cog Drive-reduction theory Cognitive Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures Cognitive/ This current psychologist emphasizes the effects of culture on Developmental development of both intellect and personality, and says that personality can change over the course of one’s life Gestalt Published an early textbook on Gestalt psychology (which studied perception, and how humans combine parts into wholes) Cognitive Identified 6 different types of love Philosopher Tabula rasa Cognitive Debunked many ideas about repressed memories Lee Locke Elizabeth Loftus James Marcia Cog/ Developmental Schacter Martin Seligman Selye Sternberg Cog Cog Cog Cog Four statuses of identity, related to identity crisis (identity achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, identity diffusion (i.e. confusion)) Two-factor theory of emotion: generalized arousal and appraisal Developed the theory of learned helplessness; also known for his research on optimism Stress This guy liked things to come in 3’s – he has a triarchic theory of love 6 Tripken Gardner Thorndike Binet Wechsler Wundt Mary Cover Jones Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; (intimacy, passion, commitment) and of intelligence (creative/experiential, analytic/componential, and practical/contextual) Cog/Dev Multiple intelligences Behaviorist He built puzzle boxes for hungry cats and discovered the law of effect (in learning new tasks, you repeat only the (random) responses that are reinforced) Cog Developed the first modern intelligence test, still the basis of modern Developmental IQ tests and Testing Cog Developed two new scales that are more popular today (gives more detailed results), the WISC and WAIS Cog Structuralism: first PSI lab in Germany Behavioral The “mother of behavior therapy,” she was a pioneer in counterconditioning, including a 3 year old boy named Peter. (counterconditioned a boy who was pretty normal except for excessive fear reactions) BEHAVIOR THERAPY In the behavioral perspective a maladjusted person (unless suffering from brain pathology) is seen as differing from others only in a) having failed to acquire competencies needed for coping with the problems of living b) having learned faulty reactions or coping patterns that are being maintained by some of kind of reinforcement or c) both. The key techniques of this perspective are as follows: Extinction. Because learned patterns tend to weaken and disappear over time if they are not reinforced, often the simplest way to eliminate a maladaptive pattern is to remove the reinforcement for it. Two techniques that rely on the principle of extinction are implosive therapy and flooding. Both focus on extinguishing the conditioned fear and accompanying avoidance behavior. They can thus be used to treat anxiety disorders. For example, flooding involves inducing a client to undergo repeated exposures to his or her real life anxiety arousing situations. The client must stay in the situation long enough for the anxiety to abate. Systematic Desensitization. This technique is aimed at teaching a person to relax or behave in some other way that is inconsistent with anxiety while in the presence of the anxiety inducing stimulus. It may therefore be considered a type of counter-conditioning procedure. The term systematic refers to the carefully graduated manner in which the person is exposed to the feared stimulus. The stimuli may either be real or imaginal. Aversion Therapy. This involves the modifying of undesirable behavior by the old fashioned method of punishment. Punishment may either involve the removal of desired reinforcers or the use of aversive stimuli (typically electric shock though drugs can be used). Aversion is primarily a way of stopping maladaptive responses for a brief period of time and then encouraging more adaptive alternative behaviors. Modeling . Modeling involves the learning of skills through imitating another person. For example, modeling may be used to promote the learning of simple skills such as self-feeding in a profoundly retarded child or more complex ones such as learning complex social skills. Systematic use of reinforcement. Systematic programs involving the use of reinforcement to elicit and maintain effective behavior have achieved notable success in institutional settings. Response shaping, token economies and behavioral contracting are among the most widely used techniques Response shaping: this involves establishing by gradual approximation a response that is not initially in an individual's response repertoire. Token economies: here appropriate behaviors are reinforced with tangible reinforcers in the form of tokens that can later be exchanged for desired objects or privileges. The token economy resembles the outside world where an individual is paid for his or her work in tokens. In such a situation tokens can reduce the delay that often occurs between appropriate performance and reinforcement. 7 Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; Behavioral contracting: In this situation the therapist specifies a client's obligations to change in a contract that is jointly signed. A common example of contracting is in behavioral couples therapy where the principles governing the exchange of reinforcements between distressed parties is formally negotiated and put in writing. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES Two main themes seem to dominate this approach. First that cognitive processes influence affect, motivation and behavior. Second, that cognitive and behavior change techniques should be used in a pragmatic (hypothesis testing) manner. All proponents of this approach believe that if critical cognitive components can be changed then behaviors and maladaptive emotions will change. The following are therapeutic variations on this theme. Rational-Emotive Therapy. Developed by Albert Ellis the task of this therapy is to restructure an individual's belief system and self-evaluation especially with respect to the irrational "shoulds" "musts" or "oughts" that are preventing a more positive sense of self worth. Ellis also believed that several key irrational beliefs, need to be changed, such as, "One should be loved by everyone for everything one does." and " It is horrible when things are not the way we would like them to be." Several methods are used to dispute these beliefs including rational disputation. Stress Innoculation Therapy. This typically focuses on altering the self-statements an individual routinely makes in stress producing situations. Here the approach is to restructure these statements so as to improve functioning under stressful conditions. Beck's Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. This therapy was originally developed for the treatment of depression but has since become effective for a wide range of disorders. The essential assumption underlying this therapy is that pathological behaviors result from the client's illogical thinking about themselves, the world they live in, and the future. In the initial phases clients are taught the connection between their patterns of thinking and their emotional response. They are taught to identify their automatic thoughts and to keep records of their thought content and emotional responses. By learning about the logical errors in their thinking they learn to challenge the validity of these automatic thoughts. Unlike other therapies beliefs and erroneous thoughts are challenged through unbiased experiments. Together a therapist and client identify the client's beliefs and expectations and formulate a hypothesis to be tested. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS The purpose of this exercise is to teach the concepts of biological interventions as they are commonly used in the treatment of psychiatric patients. In the first part of the exercise these concepts are defined with examples and non-examples being provided as exemplars. In the second part of the exercise a number of examples are provided which are either examples or non-examples of the concepts. Feedback will be provided on each example. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)--this method is typically known as ECT and is frequently used to alleviate depressive episodes. There are 2 types of ECT--bilateral and unilateral. The procedure involves electric current of approximately 150 volts being passed from one side of a patient's head to the other for about 1.5 seconds. The patient immediately loses consciousness and undergoes marked muscle contractions. These are ameliorated by the use of muscle relaxant premedications. Upon wakening, the patient usually has amnesia for the brief period before the shock. Recently a new procedure called unilateral ECT was introduced. This essentially involves the flow of current through only one hemisphere, usually the non-dominant one. Although some critics suggest significant impairments can result from ECT, recent evidence tends to dispute this. While ECT has been found to be effective with some depressions and acute mania, it is not particularly effective in dysthymic disorders. Antipsychotic Drugs--as a group are sometimes called major tranquilizers, though their effect is much more than sedating. Their unique quality is the alleviation of psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. In contrast, the antianxiety drugs (minor tranquilizers) are effective in reducing tension but not psychotic symptoms. The earliest antipsychotic was a member of the phenothiazine family called Chlorpromazine. Since then other derivative compounds such as Stelazine, Mellaril, and Prolixin have been introduced as well as non phenothiazine antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol. All of these drugs appear to block the dopamine receptors of the brain. These drugs have varying degrees of troublesome side effects, such as dryness of the mouth and throat, muscular stiffness, jaundice and a Parkinson-like syndrome involving tremors of the extremities and immobility of the facial muscles. For some patients, a troublesome side effect of long-term use is the development of a motor control dysfunction known as tardive dyskinesia. 8 Tripken Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction Name; Recently, another compound that differs from the phenothiazines, clozapine (a dibenzodiazepine) has produced very promising results. Antidepressant Drugs--have been available for the last 40 years. They include monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. A second group of antidepressants more widely used are the tricyclics, which inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephine once they have been released into the synapse. The tricyclics are most frequently used. The most common tricyclics are Tofranil, Elavil, and Aventyl. A 'second' generation antidepressant are the serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac. Another group, the triazolopyridines, such as Desyrel, are technically not tricyclics at all but tetracyclics. Most antidepressants, with the exception of MAO inhibitors, are not toxic and do not require dietary restriction. Other than the treatment of depression, many of these drugs are effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety, panic disorders, obsessive compulsive symptoms and social phobias. Anti-anxiety Drugs--originally the barbiturates were used as antianxiety agents but they fell out of favor because of high addictive potential and a low margin of dosage safety. Excessive doses are lethal especially when combined with alcohol since each drug potentiates the other. More recently, another class of antianxiety drug has been developed. These drugs, the benzodiazepines have been shown to selectively diminish generalized anxiety and yet leave adaptive behaviors intact. However, such drugs as Librium, Valium, Dalmane and especially Xanax, still have some addictive potential and can prompt lethargy and drowsiness. These drugs appear to work through their effects on GABA, a neurotransmitter now thought to be functionally deficient in people with generalized anxiety. These drugs appear to increase GABA. 9