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Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Name;
Chapter 15
This chart is great!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
PERSONALITY: A person’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Perspective
Emphasis
Theorists
Important Concepts
Assessment
Techniques
Treatment
Psychoanalytic
Behavior &
personality spring
from unconscious
conflicts & early
childhood
experiences. The
theory places an
emphasis on
sexual instincts.
Sigmund
Freud
Structure of the mind (Id, ego, & superego); the 5
psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal,
phallic, latent, & genital); defense mechanisms; libido;
Electra Complex; penis envy (yeah, right!); Oedipal
Conflict; castration anxiety.
Projective tests
(consisting of
ambiguous material)
such as the Rorschach
& Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
Insight therapy involving:
free association, analysis of
dreams (i.e., latent vs.
manifest content);
resistance, interpretation;
positive & negative
transference.
Psycho-analytic:
Neo-Freudians
Emphasis is still
on the
unconscious, but
less of an
emphasis on
sexual instincts.
Jung
Personal unconscious (much like Freud’s) AND
collective unconscious made up of archetypes—
shadow, persona, anima, animus, etc. Main
personality traits consist of introversion/extroversion
& rationality/irrationality.
Similar to the above.
Jung also examined the
drawings of mandalas to
penetrate the collective
unconscious.
Insight therapy but with less
of an emphasis on sexual
instincts.
Adler
Inferiority vs superiority; inferiority complex; fictional
finalism.
Horney
Anxiety is a stronger motivating source than sexual
impulses.
Erikson
Eight stages of psychosocial development; parentchild relationships.
William
James
Focus is on the "self"—the material self, social self,
spiritual self, & pure ego.
Carl Rogers
Actualizing tendency; fully functioning person;
unconditional positive regard.
Questionnaires and
empathetic interviews
that assess selfconcept.
Person (or client) centered
therapy incorporating active
listening & unconditional
positive regard.
Abraham
Maslow
Hierarchy of needs; self-actualization.
Humanistic
An optimistic
view of human
nature that
emphasizes the
self and the
fulfillment of each
person’s unique
potential.
Perspective
Emphasis
Biomedical;
Neuropsychological,
or physiological
psychology
Based on the
"Medical Model"
which states that
mental illnesses
are similar to
physical illnesses
in that both are
caused by the
physical
malfunction of
certain systems
within the body.
The malfunction
may be linked to
genetics.
Trait
Emphasizes the
description &
measurement of
specific
personality traits
among
individuals.
Theorists
Important Concepts
Assessment
Treatment
Most mental illnesses are caused by a "chemical
imbalance" in the brain. Ex: the neurotransmitter
Serotonin has been linked to depression and
Dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia.
Stress-diathesis model of mental illness.
There are no definitive
medical tests for mental
illness. But, advances
are likely in brainimaging techniques
Electroconvulsive Therapy
(ECT); psycho-surgery
(lobotomy); drug therapies:
anti-depressant (Prozac),
antipsychotic (Clozapine,
Thorazine), anti-anxiety
(Valium, Xanex), & antibipolar (Lithium).
Sheldon
Endomorphs, mesomorphs, & ectomorphs.
Allport
Identified 200 stable personality traits.
OBJECTIVE personality
inventories that assess
different traits (e.g.,
MMPI, 16 PF, CPI, etc.)
Cattell
Through factor-analysis, identified 16 basic
personality traits.
Trait theorists are NOT NOT
NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT
NOT interested in therapy or
the origins of mental illness.
They simply want to
MEASURE & DESCRIBE
personality traits.
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Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Eysenk
Identified two personality trait dimensions:
stability/instability & introversion/extroversion.
Name;
Behavioral
Behavior is a
product of
antecedents &
consequences in
the environment.
The importance
of "cognition" is
dismissed or
minimized.
B. F.
Skinner
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, schedules of reinforcement. ABC’s of
behavior: Antecedents, behaviors, & consequences.
Behavioral observations
and ratings.
Behavioral therapies:
a.
Classical
conditioning:
counterconditioning (both
aversive conditioning and
systematic
desensitization).
b.
Operant
conditioning: token
economies.
Social-cognitive
(or Cognitivebehavioral)
Emphasis is on
learning
(behavioral) AND
conscious
cognitive
processes.
Bandura
Social learning theory (observation & modeling);
reciprocal determinism;
Rotter
Internal vs. external locus of control.
Behavioral observations
& questionnaires
assessing people’s
thoughts and feelings.
Rational-emotive therapy
(Albert Ellis); Beck’s
cognitive therapy for
depression.
Seligman
Learned helplessness.
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Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
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Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
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Name
B. Whorf
Mary
Ainsworth
Carol
Gilligan
Stanley
Schacter
Harlow
Elizabeth
Loftus
Bowlby
Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
School
Cog
Developmental
Discovery
Inborn Linguistic relativity theory – language acquisition
Placed infants in “strange situations” to study attachment theory
Developmental
Challenged universality of Kohlberg’s theory of moral dev.
Mot and Emo
Two factor theory
Behaviorist
Developmental
Cog
Attachment; cloth/wire monkey experiment (infant had stronger bond
with cloth monkey – need for affection creates a stronger bond)
Demonstrated problems with eye witness testimony and constructive
memory/false memory
Attachment; watched babies, theorized that secure attachment early on
leads to ability to develop close personal relationships later in life
States of consciousness, psychosexual development, Id, ego, superego;
defense mechanisms
Inferiority complex; Will to Power and striving for
superiority/perfection
Collective unconscious, anima, animus, dreams
Groundbreaking work on neuroticism; concept of womb envy,
criticism of penis envy
Used factor analysis to determine surface traits and 16 source traits
Reduced behavioral characteristics in the dictionary from 18,000 words
to 42
Coined the “Big 3” dimensions of personality: Psychoticism,
Extraversion, Neuroticism
Groundbreaking research with dogs on classical conditioning
Freud
Psychodynamic
(Developmental)
Psychoanalytic
Adler
Psychoanalytic
Jung
Horney
Neo freudian
Psychoanalytic
Cattell
Allport
Trait Theory
Trait Theory
Eysenck
Trait Theory
Pavlov
Behaviorist
Learning
Behaviorist
Behaviorist
Watson
Skinner
Bandura
Kohlberg
Erikson
Rogers
Piaget
Name;
Founder of behaviorism (American)
Described different types of reinforcement in his studies of operant
conditioning: skinner box
Behaviorist/Cogni Learning and Personality: modeling and reciprocal determinism, self
tive
efficacy
Studied observational learning (aka vicarious learning) in his Bobo
Doll study; also created the theory of reciprocal determinism, a socialcognitive theory of personality (external and internal determinants of
behavior interact reciprocally)
Cognitive
Came up with stages of moral reasoning (preconventional,
Developmental
conventional, and post conventional) in development of moral
judgment
Psychoanalytic – He said the world gets bigger, failure is cumulative, and described
Neo Freudian
stages of development that include an adolescent identity crisis.
Developmental
Psychosocial development, 8 stages – stage theorist
Humanist
Person (client) Centered therapy and unconditional positive regard /
Personality PSI
absolute listening skills.The founder of the humanistic approach, he
described an “actualizing tendency” – towards fulfilling your potential.
Cognitive
Stage theorist - He described 4 stages of cognitive development
Dev.
(sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal
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Asch
Milgram
Zimbardo
Ainsworth
Chomsky
Darwin
Aristotle
Plato
Ekman
Festinger
Heider
Hermann
Ebbinghaus
Titchner
Wundt
James
Hilgard
Hull
Izard
Kagan
Koehler
Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Name;
operational); also assimilation and accommodation
Behaviorist/
Studied compliance and conformity – by putting subjects in groups,
Social PSI
asking simple questions where some assistants had been told to give
wrong answers
Behaviorist/
Studied obedience to authority by putting subjects in a situation where
Social
they believed they were shocking somenone, potentially fatally
Behaviorist/
Studied instiutional norms; Stanford prison experiment
Social
Behaviorist/
Categories babies as securely attached, insecure-avoidant, or insecureObject Relations
ambivalent (insecurely attached don’t deal with new experiences as
well, may have problems with relationships later in life)
Cognitive
Deep structure of language and the idea of a built-in language
(linguistic)
acquisition device: Critical theory hypothesis for lang. acquisition
Evolutionary
Form follows function; motivation is explained by biological necessity
Greek
Studied the soul; identified reason and physical faculties as separate
elements
Greek
Described levels of consciousness in his “Cave”
Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures
(but that display rules differ)
Cognitive
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive
Pioneer of attribution theory
Cognitive
One of the first researchers on memory; came up with the idea of using
strings of nonsense syllables to research memory
Structuralist
Founder of structuralism, the analysis of mental structures (early
schools)
Introspection
Founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig; observed and
recorded your own perceptions, thoughts, feelings
Functionalist
Like Darwin, this early theorist studied how an individual adapts to and
functions in their environment
Cognitive/Behavi Developed the idea of the hidden observer during hypnosis
orist
Behaviorist/Cog
Drive-reduction theory
Cognitive
Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures
Cognitive/
This current psychologist emphasizes the effects of culture on
Developmental
development of both intellect and personality, and says that personality
can change over the course of one’s life
Gestalt
Published an early textbook on Gestalt psychology (which studied
perception, and how humans combine parts into wholes)
Cognitive
Identified 6 different types of love
Philosopher
Tabula rasa
Cognitive
Debunked many ideas about repressed memories
Lee
Locke
Elizabeth
Loftus
James Marcia Cog/
Developmental
Schacter
Martin
Seligman
Selye
Sternberg
Cog
Cog
Cog
Cog
Four statuses of identity, related to identity crisis (identity
achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, identity diffusion (i.e.
confusion))
Two-factor theory of emotion: generalized arousal and appraisal
Developed the theory of learned helplessness; also known for his
research on optimism
Stress
This guy liked things to come in 3’s – he has a triarchic theory of love
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Gardner
Thorndike
Binet
Wechsler
Wundt
Mary Cover
Jones
Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Name;
(intimacy, passion, commitment) and of intelligence
(creative/experiential, analytic/componential, and practical/contextual)
Cog/Dev
Multiple intelligences
Behaviorist
He built puzzle boxes for hungry cats and discovered the law of effect
(in learning new tasks, you repeat only the (random) responses that are
reinforced)
Cog
Developed the first modern intelligence test, still the basis of modern
Developmental
IQ tests
and Testing
Cog
Developed two new scales that are more popular today (gives more
detailed results), the WISC and WAIS
Cog
Structuralism: first PSI lab in Germany
Behavioral
The “mother of behavior therapy,” she was a pioneer in counterconditioning, including a 3 year old boy named Peter. (counterconditioned a boy who was pretty normal except for excessive fear
reactions)
BEHAVIOR THERAPY
In the behavioral perspective a maladjusted person (unless suffering from brain pathology) is seen as differing from others only in a)
having failed to acquire competencies needed for coping with the problems of living b) having learned faulty reactions or coping
patterns that are being maintained by some of kind of reinforcement or c) both. The key techniques of this perspective are as
follows:

Extinction. Because learned patterns tend to weaken and disappear over time if they are not reinforced, often the simplest
way to eliminate a maladaptive pattern is to remove the reinforcement for it. Two techniques that rely on the principle of
extinction are implosive therapy and flooding. Both focus on extinguishing the conditioned fear and accompanying
avoidance behavior. They can thus be used to treat anxiety disorders. For example, flooding involves inducing a client to
undergo repeated exposures to his or her real life anxiety arousing situations. The client must stay in the situation long
enough for the anxiety to abate.

Systematic Desensitization. This technique is aimed at teaching a person to relax or behave in some other way that is
inconsistent with anxiety while in the presence of the anxiety inducing stimulus. It may therefore be considered a type of
counter-conditioning procedure. The term systematic refers to the carefully graduated manner in which the person is
exposed to the feared stimulus. The stimuli may either be real or imaginal.

Aversion Therapy. This involves the modifying of undesirable behavior by the old fashioned method of punishment.
Punishment may either involve the removal of desired reinforcers or the use of aversive stimuli (typically electric shock
though drugs can be used). Aversion is primarily a way of stopping maladaptive responses for a brief period of time and
then encouraging more adaptive alternative behaviors.

Modeling
. Modeling involves the learning of skills through imitating another person. For example, modeling may be used to
promote the learning of simple skills such as self-feeding in a profoundly retarded child or more complex ones such as
learning complex social skills.

Systematic use of reinforcement. Systematic programs involving the use of reinforcement to elicit and maintain effective
behavior have achieved notable success in institutional settings. Response shaping, token economies and behavioral
contracting are among the most widely used techniques

Response shaping: this involves establishing by gradual approximation a response that is not initially in an
individual's response repertoire.

Token economies: here appropriate behaviors are reinforced with tangible reinforcers in the form of tokens that
can later be exchanged for desired objects or privileges. The token economy resembles the outside world where an
individual is paid for his or her work in tokens. In such a situation tokens can reduce the delay that often occurs
between appropriate performance and reinforcement.
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
Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Name;
Behavioral contracting: In this situation the therapist specifies a client's obligations to change in a contract that
is jointly signed. A common example of contracting is in behavioral couples therapy where the principles
governing the exchange of reinforcements between distressed parties is formally negotiated and put in writing.
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES
Two main themes seem to dominate this approach. First that cognitive processes influence affect, motivation and behavior. Second,
that cognitive and behavior change techniques should be used in a pragmatic (hypothesis testing) manner. All proponents of this
approach believe that if critical cognitive components can be changed then behaviors and maladaptive emotions will change. The
following are therapeutic variations on this theme.
Rational-Emotive Therapy. Developed by Albert Ellis the task of this therapy is to restructure an individual's belief system and
self-evaluation especially with respect to the irrational "shoulds" "musts" or "oughts" that are preventing a more positive sense of
self worth. Ellis also believed that several key irrational beliefs, need to be changed, such as, "One should be loved by everyone for
everything one does." and " It is horrible when things are not the way we would like them to be." Several methods are used to
dispute these beliefs including rational disputation.
Stress Innoculation Therapy. This typically focuses on altering the self-statements an individual routinely makes in stress
producing situations. Here the approach is to restructure these statements so as to improve functioning under stressful conditions.
Beck's Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. This therapy was originally developed for the treatment of depression but has since become
effective for a wide range of disorders. The essential assumption underlying this therapy is that pathological behaviors result from
the client's illogical thinking about themselves, the world they live in, and the future. In the initial phases clients are taught the
connection between their patterns of thinking and their emotional response. They are taught to identify their automatic thoughts and
to keep records of their thought content and emotional responses. By learning about the logical errors in their thinking they learn to
challenge the validity of these automatic thoughts. Unlike other therapies beliefs and erroneous thoughts are challenged through
unbiased experiments. Together a therapist and client identify the client's beliefs and expectations and formulate a hypothesis to be
tested.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
The purpose of this exercise is to teach the concepts of biological interventions as they are commonly used in the treatment of
psychiatric patients. In the first part of the exercise these concepts are defined with examples and non-examples being provided as
exemplars. In the second part of the exercise a number of examples are provided which are either examples or non-examples of the
concepts. Feedback will be provided on each example.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)--this method is typically known as ECT and is frequently used to alleviate depressive
episodes. There are 2 types of ECT--bilateral and unilateral. The procedure involves electric current of approximately 150
volts being passed from one side of a patient's head to the other for about 1.5 seconds. The patient immediately loses
consciousness and undergoes marked muscle contractions. These are ameliorated by the use of muscle relaxant premedications. Upon wakening, the patient usually has amnesia for the brief period before the shock.
Recently a new procedure called unilateral ECT was introduced. This essentially involves the flow of current through only
one hemisphere, usually the non-dominant one.
Although some critics suggest significant impairments can result from ECT, recent evidence tends to dispute this. While
ECT has been found to be effective with some depressions and acute mania, it is not particularly effective in dysthymic
disorders.

Antipsychotic Drugs--as a group are sometimes called major tranquilizers, though their effect is much more than sedating.
Their unique quality is the alleviation of psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. In contrast, the antianxiety drugs (minor tranquilizers) are effective in reducing tension but not psychotic symptoms. The earliest antipsychotic
was a member of the phenothiazine family called Chlorpromazine. Since then other derivative compounds such as
Stelazine, Mellaril, and Prolixin have been introduced as well as non phenothiazine antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol. All
of these drugs appear to block the dopamine receptors of the brain.
These drugs have varying degrees of troublesome side effects, such as dryness of the mouth and throat, muscular stiffness,
jaundice and a Parkinson-like syndrome involving tremors of the extremities and immobility of the facial muscles. For
some patients, a troublesome side effect of long-term use is the development of a motor control dysfunction known as
tardive dyskinesia.
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Tripken
Ψ Psych. / Chapter 1 / Introduction
Name;
Recently, another compound that differs from the phenothiazines, clozapine (a dibenzodiazepine) has produced very
promising results.

Antidepressant Drugs--have been available for the last 40 years. They include monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. A
second group of antidepressants more widely used are the tricyclics, which inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and
norepinephine once they have been released into the synapse. The tricyclics are most frequently used. The most common
tricyclics are Tofranil, Elavil, and Aventyl.
A 'second' generation antidepressant are the serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac. Another group,
the triazolopyridines, such as Desyrel, are technically not tricyclics at all but tetracyclics.
Most antidepressants, with the exception of MAO inhibitors, are not toxic and do not require dietary restriction.
Other than the treatment of depression, many of these drugs are effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety, panic
disorders, obsessive compulsive symptoms and social phobias.

Anti-anxiety Drugs--originally the barbiturates were used as antianxiety agents but they fell out of favor because of high
addictive potential and a low margin of dosage safety. Excessive doses are lethal especially when combined with alcohol
since each drug potentiates the other. More recently, another class of antianxiety drug has been developed. These drugs, the
benzodiazepines have been shown to selectively diminish generalized anxiety and yet leave adaptive behaviors intact.
However, such drugs as Librium, Valium, Dalmane and especially Xanax, still have some addictive potential and can
prompt lethargy and drowsiness. These drugs appear to work through their effects on GABA, a neurotransmitter now
thought to be functionally deficient in people with generalized anxiety. These drugs appear to increase GABA.
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