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UNIT
2
THE WEST IN
TRANSITION
.
Concept Outline and Learning Objectives by Topic for Unit 2
Take PRIDE notes on these concepts.
Topic
Concept Outline
Illustrative
examples
Key Concept 1.1
Learning Objective
Renaissance
The world view of European intellectuals shifted from one based on
ecclesiastical and classical authority to one based primarily on inquiry and
observation of the natural world.
1. Revival of classical texts led to new
scholarships and new values in society and
religion
* Italian humanists
* Petrarch
promoted a revival in
* Lorenzo Valla
classical literature
* Marsilio Ficino
* New philosophical
*Pico della
approaches to ancient
Mirandola
texts
* Some humanists
furthered values of
secularism and
individualism
* Revival of Greek and * Leonardo Bruni
Roman texts spread by
* Leon Battista
printing press
Alberti
challenged institutional * Niccolo
power of universities
Machiavelli
and the Catholic Church
and shifted focus of
education away from
theology toward to the
study of classical texts
* Admiration for Greek * Niccole
and Roman political
Machiavelli
institutions supported a * Jean Bodin
revival of civic
* Baldassare
humanist culture in
Castiglione
Italian city-states
* Francesco
* Admiration of
Guicciardini
classical institutions
produced secular
models for individual
and political behavior
“Analyze how religious reform in the 16th and
17th centuries, the expansion of printing, and the
emergence of civic venues and coffeehouses
challenged the control of the church over the
creation and dissemination of knowledge.” (1.1 –
I – new methods of scholarship/new values, 1.1 –
II – invention of printing)
“Analyze how the development of Renaissance
humanism, the printing press, and the scientific
method contributed to the emergence of a new
theory of knowledge and conception of the
universe.” (1.1 – revival of classical texts, new
methods of scholarship, 1.1- II printing culture)
“Explain how and why religion increasingly
shifted from a matter of public concern to use of
private belief over the course of European
history.” (1.1-I – humanist secular models for
individual and pol behavior)
“Analyze the means by which individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered
a valid source of knowledge.” (1.1 – I –
Humanists valued the individual)
“Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
new conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance as well as subsequent theories and
practices that stressed the political importance
and rights of the individuals.” (1.1-I – Civic
humanism and secular theories)
“Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
new conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance as well as subsequent theories and
practices that stressed the political importance
and rights of the individuals.” (1.1-III –art in
service of the state)
2. Invention of printing promoted
the dissemination of new ideas
* Invention of printing
press in 1450s aided in
spreading the
Renaissance beyond
Italy
* Invention of printing
press encouraged the
growth of vernacular
literature
* Vernacular literature
eventually contributed
to the development of
national cultures
3. The visual arts incorporated the new
ideas of the Renaissance and were used
to promote personal, political and religious
goals
* Princes and popes,
* Michelangelo
concerned with
* Donatello
enhancing their prestige, * Raphael
commissioned paintings * Andrea Palladio
and architectural works * Leon Battista
* These works were
Alberti
based on classical styles * Filipo
* These works often
Brunelleschi
employed newly
invented techniques of
geometric perspective
* Human-centered
* Raphael
naturalism considered
* Leonardo da
individuals and
Vinci
everyday life
* Jan Van Eyck
appropriate objects of
* Pieter Bruegel
artistic representations
the Elder
* Creation of these
* Rembrandt
artistic representations
was encouraged through
the patronage of both
princes and commercial
elites
* Mannerist and
* El Greco
Baroque artists
* Artemisia
employed distortion,
Gentileschi
drama, and illusion in
* Gian Bernini
works commissioned by * Peter Paul
monarchies, city-states, Rubens
and the church for
public building to
“Trace the ways in which new technologies,
from the printing press to the Internet, have
shaped the development of civil society and
enhanced the role of public opinion.” (1.1-II –
Printing press)
“Evaluate the role of technology, from the
printing press to modern transportation and
telecommunications, in forming and
transforming society.” (1.1 – II – Printing press –
Ren/Ref)
“Analyze how the development of Renaissance
humanism, the printing press, and the scientific
method contributed to the emergence of a new
theory of knowledge and conception of the
universe.” (1.1 – III – visual arts)
“Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
new conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance as well as subsequent theories and
practices that stressed the political importance
and rights of the individuals.” (1.1-III –art in
service of the state)
promote their stature
and power
Key Concept 1.2
The struggle for sovereignty within and among states
resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
“Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
I. The new concept of the sovereign state
and secular systems of law played a central new conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance as well as subsequent theories and
role in the creation of new political
practices that stressed the political importance
institutions
and rights of the individuals.” (1.1-I – Civic
* Across Europe,
* Merchants and
humanism and secular theories)
commercial and
financiers in
professional groups
Renaissance Italy
“Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
gained in power and
and northern
new conceptions of political authority during the
played a greater role in
Europe
Renaissance as well as subsequent theories and
political affairs
practices that stressed the political importance
* Secular political
* Jean Bodin
and rights of the individuals.” (1.1-III –art in
theories, such as those
* Hugo Grotius
service of the state)
espoused in
Machiavelli’s The
Prince, provided a new
concept to the state
Key Concept 1.5
European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly
shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the
persistence of medieval social and economic structures.
IV. The family remained the primary
social and economic institution of early
modern Europe and took several forms,
including the nuclear family.
The Renaissance raised * Women’s
debates about female
intellect and
roles in the family,
education
society, and the church
* Women as
preachers
* La Querelle de
Femmes
“Explain how a worldview based on science and
reason challenged and preserved social order and
roles, especially the role of women.” (1.5 – IV –
Renaissance debate)
“Evaluate the causes and consequences of
persistent tensions between women’s role and
status in the private versus public sphere.” (1.5 –
IV – Renaissance debates on women)
“Assess the extent to which women participated
in and benefitted from the shifting values of
European society from the 15th century onward.”
(1.5 – Renaissance)
Key Concept 1.1
The world view of European intellectuals shifted from one based on
ecclesiastical and classical authority to one based primarily on inquiry and
observation of the natural world.
Reformation
II. Invention of printing promoted
the dissemination of new ideas
* Protestant reformers
used the press to
disseminate their ideas,
which spurred religious
reform and helped it
become widely
established
“Analyze how religious reform in the 16th and
17th centuries, the expansion of printing, and the
emergence of civic venues and coffeehouses the
control of the church over the creation and
dissemination of knowledge.” (1.1 – I – new
methods of scholarship/new values, 1.1 – II –
invention of printing)
“Evaluate the role of technology, from the
printing press to modern transportation and
telecommunications, in forming and transforming
society.” (1.1 – II – Printing press – Ren/Ref)
“Explain how and why religion increasingly
shifted from a matter of public concern to use of
private belief over the course of European
history.” (1.3-I –new interpretations of Christian
doctrine and practice, 1.3-III – religious
pluralism)
Key Concept 1.3
Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe.
1. The Protestant and Catholic
Reformations fundamentally changed
theology, religious institutions, and
culture
* Christian humanism,
* Sir Thomas
embodied in the
More
writings of Erasmus,
* Juan Luis Vives
employed Renaissance
learning in the service
of religious reform
* Reformers Martin
* Indulgences
Luther and John Calvin, * Nepotism
as well as religious
* Simony
radicals such as the
* Pluralism
Anabaptists, criticized
* Absenteeism
Catholic abuses and
established new
interpretations of
Christian doctrines and
practice
* The Catholic
*St. Teresa of
Reformation,
Avila
exemplified by the
* Ursulines
"Analyze how religious reform in the 16th and
17th centuries, the
expansion of printing, and the emergence of civic
venues such as salons and coffeehouses
challenged the control of the church over the
creation and dissemination of knowledge."
"Explain how and why religion increasingly
shifted from a matter of
public concern to one of private belief over the
course of European history."
“Trace the changing relationship between states
and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of
the principle of religious toleration.” (1.3-IIIReformation and religious conflict)
Jesuit Order and the
* Roman
Council of Trent,
Inquisition
revived the church but
* Index of
cemented the division
Forbidden Books
within Christianity.
2. Religious reform both increased state
control of religious institutions and
provided justifications for challenging
state authority.
* Monarchs and
* Spanish
princes, such as English Inquisition
rulers Henry VIII and
* Concordant of
Elizabeth I, initiated
Bologna (1516)
religious reform from
* Book of
the top down
Common Prayer
(magisterial) in an effort * Peace of
to exercise greater
Augsburg
control over religious
life and morality (state
actions)
* Some Protestants,
including Calvin and
Anabaptists, refused to
recognize the
subordination of the
church to the state
* Religious conflicts
* Huguenots
became a basis for
* Puritans
challenging the
* Nobles in
monarchs’ control of
Poland
religious institutions
3. Conflicts among religious groups
overlapped with political and economic
competition within and among states.
* The efforts of
* Charles I/V
Habsburg rulers failed
* Philip II
to restore Catholic unity * Philip III
across Europe.
* Philip IV
* States exploited
* Catholic Spain
religious conflicts to
and Protestant
promote political and
England
economic interests.
* France,
Sweden, and
Denmark in the
Thirty Years’ War
“Analyze how religious and secular institutions
and groups attempted to limit monarchial power
by articulating theories of resistance to
absolutism and by taking political action.” (1.3-II
– religious minorities)
“Analyze how cities and states have attempted to
address the problems brought about by economic
modernization, such as poverty and famine,
through regulating morals, policing marginal
populations, and improving public health.” (1.5 –
III – government regulation of public
morals/Calvin’s Geneva)
"Analyze how religious reform in the 16th and
17th centuries, the
expansion of printing, and the emergence of civic
venues such as salons and coffeehouses
challenged the control of the church over the
creation and dissemination of knowledge."
“Analyze how religious and secular institutions
and groups attempted to limit monarchial power
by articulating theories of resistance to
absolutism and by taking political action.” (1.3-II
– religious minorities)
“Trace the changing relationship between states
and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of
the principle of religious toleration.” (1.3-IIIreligious warfare)
Key Concept 1.5
European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly
shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the
persistence of medieval social and economic structures.
IV. The family remained the primary
social and economic institution of early
modern Europe and took several forms,
including the nuclear family.
“Explain how a worldview based on science and
reason challenged and preserved social order and
roles, especially the role of women.” (1.5 – IV –
Reformation debate)
* Women’s
intellect and
education
* Women as
preachers
* La Querelle de
Femmes
“Evaluate the causes and consequences of
persistent tensions between women’s role and
status in the private versus public sphere.” (1.5 –
IV – Reformation debates on women)
* The Renaissance
raised debates about
female roles in the
family, society, and the
church
“Assess the extent to which women participated
in and benefitted from the shifting values of
European society from the 15th century onward.”
(1.5 – Reformation)
Key Concept 1.4
Exploration and Colonization
Europeans explored and settled overseas territories,
encountering and interacting with indigenous populations.
1. European nations were driven by
commercial and religious motives to explore
overseas territories and establish colonies
* European states sought
direct access to gold and
spices and luxury goods as
a means to enhance
personal wealth and state
power
* Rise of mercantilism
gave the state a new role in
promoting commercial
development and the
acquisition of colonies
overseas
* Christianity served as a
stimulus for exploration as
governments and religious
authorities sought to
spread the faith and
counter Islam
*Christianity served as a
justification for the
physical and cultural
subjugation of indigenous
cultures
2. Advances in navigation, cartography,
and military technology allowed Europeans
to establish overseas colonies and empires
Navigation tech:
* Compass
* Stern-post
rudder
* Portolani
* Quadrant and
astrolabe
* Lateen rig
Military tech:
* Horses
* Guns and
gunpowder
“Explain how European expansion and
colonization brought non-European societies into
global economic, diplomatic, military, and cultural
networks.” (1.4 – I - motives)
“Assess the relative influence of economic,
religious, and political motives in prompting
exploration and colonization” (1.4 – I, II)
“Analyze the cultural beliefs that justified
European conquest of overseas territories and how
they changed over time.” (1.4 – I)
“Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial
Revolution, total warfare, and economic
depressions in altering the government’s
relationship to the economy, both in overseeing
economic activity and in addressing its social
impact.” (1.4-I – colonization and mercantilism)
“Explain how European exploration and
colonization was facilitated by the development of
the scientific method and led to a re-examination
of cultural norms.” (1.4 – II – navigation,
cartography, mil tech, 2.3 – II – representations of
peoples outside Europe)
“Evaluate how the emergence of new weapons,
tactics, and methods of military organization
changed the scale and cost of warfare, required
centralization of power, and shifted the balance of
power.” (1.4-II – exploration and colonization)
“Evaluate the role of technology, from the printing
press to modern transportation and
telecommunications, in forming and transforming
society.” (1.4 – II – Exploration and colonization)
“Analyze how scientific and intellectual advances
– resulting in more effective navigational,
cartographic, and military technology – facilitated
European interaction with other parts of the
world.” (1.4 – II)
“Analyze how European states established and
administered overseas commercial and territorial
empires.” (1.4 – II – technological advantages,
commercial networks)
“Assess the role of overseas trade, labor, and
technology in making Europe part of a global
economic network and encouraging the
development of new economic theories and state
policies.” (1.4 – I – access to gold, spices, luxury
goods, mercantilism), 1.4 – III – trade networks,
I.4 – IV – Columbian Exchange)
3. Europeans established overseas empires
and trade networks through coercion and
negotiation
* Portuguese established a
commercial network along
the African coast, in South
and East Asia, and in
South America
* The Spanish established
colonies across the
Americas, the Caribbean,
and the Pacific, which
made Spain a dominant
state in Europe
* The Atlantic nations of
France, England, and the
Netherlands followed by
establishing their own
colonies and trading
networks
* They established these
colonies and networks to
compete with Spanish and
Portuguese dominance
4. Europe’s colonial expansion led to a
global exchange of goods, flora, fauna,
cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in
the destruction of some indigenous
civilizations, a shift toward European
dominance, and the expansion of the slave
trade
* Exchange of goods shifted
to the center of economic
power in Europe from the
Mediterranean to the
Atlantic states and brought
the Atlantic states into an
expanding world economy
“Explain the extent of and causes for nonEuropeans’ adoption of or resistance to European
cultural, political, or economic values and
institutions, and explain the causes of their
reactions.” (1.4 – III – empires, I.V – IV – slave
trade and new goods)
“Explain how European expansion and
colonization brought non-European societies into
global economic, diplomatic, military, and cultural
networks.” (1.4 – III – empire)
“Assess the impact of war, diplomacy, and
overseas exploration and colonization on
European diplomacy and balance of power until
1789.” (1.4 – III – Colonial Empires)
“Evaluate the impact of the Columbian Exchange
– the global exchange of goods, plants, animals,
and microbes – on Europe’s economy, society,
and culture.” (1.4 – IV – shift of power to Atlantic
states)
“Assess the role of overseas trade, labor, and
technology in making Europe part of a global
economic network and encouraging the
development of new economic theories and state
policies.” (1.4 – I – access to gold, spices, luxury
goods, mercantilism), 1.4 – III – trade networks,
I.4 – IV – Columbian Exchange)
* The exchange of new
plants, animals, and
diseases – The Columbian
Exchange – facilitated
European subjugation and
destruction of indigenous
peoples, particularly in the
Americas
From Europe to
Americas:
* Wheat
* Cattle
* Horses
* Pigs
* Sheep
* Smallpox
* Measles
From Americas
to Europe:
* Tomatoes
* Potatoes
* Squash
* Corn
* Tobacco
* Turkeys
* Syphilis
* Europeans expanded the
African slave trade in
response to the
establishment of a
plantation economy in the
Americas and demographic
catastrophes among
indigenous peoples
“Assess the role of European contact on overseas
territories through the introduction of disease,
participation in the slave trade and slavery, effects
on agricultural and manufacturing patterns, and
global conflict.” (1.4 – IV – Columbia Exchange)
“Analyze how non-European peoples increased
European social and cultural diversity and affected
attitudes toward race.” (1.4 – IV – expansion of
slave trade)
“Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race,
and class have defined the individual in
relationship to society.” (1.4 – IV – Slave trade,
1.5 – I – new economic elites and hierarchy)
“Explain how European expansion and
colonization brought non-European societies into
global economic, diplomatic, military, and cultural
networks.” (1.4 – IV – slave trade and new goods,
1.5 – 1 – money economy)
“Explain the extent of and causes for nonEuropeans’ adoption of or resistance to European
cultural, political, or economic values and
institutions, and explain the causes of their
reactions.” (1.4 – III – empires, I.V – IV – slave
trade and new goods)
“Analyze how and why Europeans have
marginalized certain populations (defined as
“other”) over the course of their history.” (1.4 – I
–Colonial Conquest)
Chapter 2—Renaissance and Discovery
Key Concepts
The Emergence of Nation-States
Led by New Monarchs, the unified states such as France, Spain, and England that were emerging in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries had various things in common that are ingredients of the modern state: a
centralized bureaucracy of civil servants dependent upon the king for their positions and thus generally loyal
(contrast this with clerical administrators upon which earlier kings often had to depend), standing armies (instead
of feudal levies), and increased taxation of the peasantry to support these requirements. In addition, major
benefits of a centralized state include a postal service and expanded trade and industry. Italy and Germany were
the two most important examples of areas that failed to unify due to intense local rivalries.
The Renaissance
Renaissance is a French term meaning “rebirth” that describes the dawning of a new era that took its
inspiration from classical antiquity. The revival of learning and emphasis upon man and his unique abilities and
beauty contrasts with the medieval emphasis upon the glory of God and the sinfulness of man. The “rebirth” of
Western civilization implies that the Middle Ages were years of decline and sterility. Although true in some
ways, medieval civilization can certainly be viewed as progressive and even exceptional with its establishment of
trade routes, commerce and technology. The Late Middle Ages was a period of “creative breakup.”
Revival of classicism
Greco-Roman culture permeates the many aspects of the Renaissance. This glorification of the classical
world will be reinvented a few centuries later during the time of revolutions at the end of the 18th century. This
Neo-Classical period will not only look back to ancient civilizations, but as well to this renaissance.
Humanism
The growth of humanism during this period will influence many great philosophical movements of the
future. Although this humanism is linked to the Church in many ways, it is different than previous Western
European Christian thought in that it will encourage individuality as God’s gift, rather than the community as
being God’s will.
Impact of the Printing Press
As the world moved into the 21st century, many surveys were taken dealing with “the most” or “the best”
of the past millennium. As historians and writers looked for the most influential person of the last 1,000 years,
Johannes Gutenberg was the number one choice in more than one survey. The impact of the printing press not
only involved books at its creation, but as well information storage and dissemination through our time.
The Cultural and Economic Impact of Exploration and Discovery
In the fifteenth century, Portuguese and Spanish explorers opened up great opportunities for trade in gold
and spices from the New World. With this expanded trade came the increase in international slave trade. New
wealth permitted research and expansion in a number of industries and led to the development of capitalist
institutions and practices. There was great aggravation of the traditional social divisions as people envisioned
ways of living that offered greater freedom and increased opportunity for a better life. This period of imperialism
involved different factors than that which you will come to know as “New Imperialism” of the late 19th century.
It is important that you know the basics of exploration and colonization of the 15th and 16th centuries, including
goals, nations, and levels of control so that you will have a springboard for later comparison.
Chapter Summary
This chapter focuses on the political, social, and economic developments of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. Topics include the revival of monarchy and the development of the nation-state, the Renaissance
Movement of classical learning, art and Humanism in Italy, the Northern Renaissance, voyages of discovery, and
the economic foundations of mercantilism. Because of the Hundred Years’ War and the Schism in the church, the
nobility and the clergy were in a decline in the Late Middle Ages. The bonds of feudal society were finally
broken and sovereign states arose. Monarchies began to create bureaucracies that administered the realm and
collected taxes that were increased to support the new standing armies. The chapter then details the rise of France
under Louis XI, the unification of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella, the conflict in England with the “War of
the Roses,” and the establishment of the Tudor monarchy in 1485 under Henry VII. In Germany, an agreement
known as the Golden Bull established a seven-member electoral college in 1356 that also functioned as a
transregional administrative body. But Germany remained the most disunited of late medieval countries.
Renaissance society took distinctive shape within the cities of Italy. There were five major states: Milan,
Florence, Venice, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples. These states had various types of government,
but most evolved into despotisms after near-anarchic social conflict. All of them possessed great wealth, the main
requirement for patronage of the arts and letters.
Humanism was the scholarly study of the Greek and Latin classics and the ancient Church Fathers, both
for their own sake and in hope of a rebirth of ancient values. Humanists believed that much of traditional
education was useless: education should promote individual virtue and public service. The chapter then details
intellectual development such as the neo-Platonism of Ficino and the famous oration of Pico della Mirandola.
The art of the period is also discussed with special emphasis on the realism of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael,
Michelangelo, and Giotto.
The prevalence of slavery in Renaissance Italy is noted briefly. Household/domestic slavery as well as
collective plantation slavery developed in the eastern Mediterranean during the High Middle Ages. The decline
of available labor after the Black Death contributed to the rise of slavery.
The internal cooperation of Italy’s city-states, which had been maintained during the fifteenth century,
broke down in 1490. Threatened by attack from Naples, Florence, and the Papal States, the Milanese despot
Ludovico asked for French help. A series of three French invasions ensued that resulted in Spanish intervention
as well. Italy was left a shambles. Machiavelli became convinced that Italian political unity and independence
were ends worth any means. He wrote The Prince in 1513 to encourage the emergence of a strong ruler from the
Medici family. Italy, however, remained divided.
After 1450, the emergence of truly sovereign rulers set in motion a shift from divided feudal monarchy to
unified national monarchies. Towns began to ally themselves with kings. This alliance made possible the rise of
sovereign states. Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain, Louis XI in France, and Henry VII in England all were able to
exploit this opportunity to establish strong monarchies. They used this power to raise royal armies, and they paid
for these armies by levying various taxes on the people. Germany and Italy stood as exceptions to centralized
monarchy. In Germany, territorial rulers resisted unity. This disunity later aided the religious dissent of the
Protestant Reformation. Another key factor setting the stage for the tensions surrounding the Reformation was
the invention of the printing press. Religious texts and pamphlets could be printed, read, and debated like never
before.
Northern Humanist culture was largely imported from the south, but northern Humanists tended to be
more socially diversified and religious. Erasmus, for example, supported a simple ethical piety in contrast to the
abstract and ceremonial religion of the later Middle Ages. The Reuchlin affair united German Humanists who
supported Reuchlin in the name of academic freedom. The best known of the early English Humanists was
Thomas More (Utopia). France also had an active Humanist circle, out of which came John Calvin. In Germany,
England, and France, then, Humanism prepared the way for Protestant reforms and entered the service of the
Catholic Church in Spain, where Jiménez de Cisneros was a key figure.
In the fifteenth century, commercial supremacy was transferred from the Mediterranean and the Baltic to
the Atlantic seaboard. Portuguese and Spanish explorers opened up great opportunities for trade in gold and
spices. Attention is paid to the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and Incas—and especially their economic
exploitation of the New World. African slaves became another item of trade. The new wealth permitted research
and expansion in a number of industries and led to the development of capitalist institutions and practices. There
was great aggravation of the traditional social divisions.
ID’s
People
Alighieri, Dante
Boccaccio, Giovanni
Buonarroti, Michelangelo
Castiglione, Baldassare
de Montaigne, Michel
de Pisan, Christine
Giotto
Gutenberg, Johann
Henry the Navigator
Henry Tudor/Henry VII
Isabella of Castile
Leonardo da Vinci
Countries/
Land
Time Periods/Events
Black Death
Italian Renaissance
Northern Renaissance
Terms
Humanism
Scholasticism
de Valla, Lorenzo
de’ Medici, Cosimo
de’ Medici, Lorenzo
della Mirandola, Pico
Dührer, Albrecht
Erasmus, Desiderius
Ferdinand of Aragon
Florentine Academy
Lorenzo the Magnificent
Louis XI
Machiavelli, Niccolò
More, Sir Thomas
New Monarchs
Petrarch, Francesco
Pope Julius II
Raphael
Savonarola, Girolamo
Focus Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What was Jacob Burckhardt’s interpretation of the Renaissance? What criticisms have been leveled against it?
What did the term mean in the context of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italy?
How would you define Renaissance humanism? In what ways was the Renaissance a break with the Middle
Ages, and in what ways did it owe its existence to medieval civilization?
Who were some of the famous literary and artistic figures of the Italian Renaissance? What did they have in
common that might be described as “the spirit of the Renaissance”?
Why did the French invade Italy in 1494? How did this event trigger Italy’s political decline? How did the
actions of Pope Julius II and the ideas of Niccolò Machiavelli signify a new era in Italian civilization?
A common assumption is that creative work proceeds best in periods of calm and peace. Given the combination
of political instability and cultural productivity in Renaissance Italy, do you think this assumption is valid?
How did the Renaissance in the north differ from the Italian Renaissance? In what ways was Erasmus the
embodiment of the Northern Renaissance?
What factors led to the voyages of discovery? Why were the Portuguese interested in finding a route to the East?
Why did Columbus sail west across the Atlantic in 1492?
Chapter 3—The Age of Reformation
Key Concepts
The Reforms of Martin Luther
Luther focused his initial protest to Catholic doctrine on two related issues: 1) the sale of indulgences to
remit temporal penalties for confessed sins and even time in purgatory, since it seemed to make salvation
something that could be bought and sold; 2) salvation could be achieved, not by religious works and ceremonies,
but by faith in Jesus Christ alone.
The English Reformation
The Reformation in England did not stem from religious principles as it did in Germany, but from
political expediency. Henry VIII was driven by the need for a male heir, which he evidently could not obtain
from his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry’s subsequent efforts to rid himself of Catherine exemplify the
subversion of religion to the political needs of state.
Doctrinal differences among Protestant faiths
It is easy to confuse the many facets of the Protestant faiths during the Reformation. Today’s Christian
line of separation is generally drawn between Catholicism and Protestantism, with all of the Reformation faiths on
one side and Catholicism on the other. It might help students to see this issue in a distance analogy, rather than a
line of separation. During the Reformation, if the Catholic Church were on the goal line at one end of a football
field, then Lutheranism would be on the 5-yard line at the same end with Calvinism, Anabaptism, and other
Protestant faiths down at the other goal line. Indeed, looking at the Peace of Augsburg, this “linking” of
Catholicism and Lutheranism, and the non-recognition of the more radical faiths is borne out.
The Social Significance of the Reformation
The Reformation brought about basic and lasting changes in education and the image and role of women
in society. The Reformation implemented the educational ideas of Humanism which emphasized the study of
primary sources in the original languages. This was a much more effective tool for the defense of Protestant
doctrine than was Scholastic dialectic. The Protestant reformers also approved clerical marriages and challenged
the medieval tendency to degrade women as temptresses. Women were praised particularly in their biblical
vocation as mother and housewife. The reformers encouraged the education of girls and, in so doing, gave some
women a role in the Reformation as independent authors.
Although from the modern paradigm the role of women during the Reformation appears to be repressive,
it is important to look at historical issues from their own paradigms. Women during the Middle Ages although
repressed politically, had certain economic and personal freedoms under the feudal system. During the
Renaissance, women were even more limited as they were “elevated” to a protected position. From this
background, the expanding legal power and family responsibility of women during the Reformation should be
explored.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discusses the political, social and particularly religious developments of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. The chapter focuses primarily on the independent lay and clerical efforts to reform religious
practice. It also delves into the various ideas of Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, Henry VIII, and
other religious and political reformers. The Catholic Reformation is discussed as well. Finally, the chapter
assesses the effect of the Reformation on society, religion, and education.
The late medieval church was a failing institution that was beset with political troubles (“Babylonian
Captivity,” Great Schism, conciliar movement and Renaissance papacy), and had ceased to provide an example of
religious piety. Lay criticism of the church increased and became more organized. One constructive lay
movement was the Modern Devotion, or the Brothers of the Common Life, which stressed individual piety and an
active common life.
Unlike France and England, late medieval Germany lacked the political unity to enforce national religious
reforms. An unorganized opposition to Rome had formed, however, and by 1517 it was strong enough to provide
a solid foundation for Martin Luther’s reforms. The chapter continues with Luther’s dramatic career and
emphasizes his opposition to indulgences (95 Theses), his doctrine of “justification by faith alone,” and his
challenge to papal infallibility. In its first decade, however, the Protestant movement suffered more from internal
division than from imperial interference.
Ulrich Zwingli led the Swiss Reformation on the simple guideline that whatever lacked literal support in
Scripture was to be neither believed nor practiced. The unity of the Protestant movement suffered because of the
theological disagreements between Zwingli and Luther and the threat of more radical groups such as the
Anabaptists (who insisted upon adult baptism), Spiritualists, and Anti-Trinitarians.
After discussing the efforts of Charles V to unify the church by formal decree (Diet of Augsburg) and the
Protestant reaction and consolidation, the chapter relates the spread of Calvinism. John Calvin went to Geneva in
1536 after a political revolution against a local prince-bishop had paved the way for political reform. Calvin
proposed strict measures to govern Geneva’s moral life, which created opposition. After a short exile, he returned
to enforce the strictest moral discipline. After 1555, Geneva became a refuge for thousands of Protestants who
had been driven out of France, England, and Scotland.
The key precondition of the English Reformation was the “king’s affair.” Henry VIII wanted a papal
annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. When this was refused by the pope, the “Reformation
Parliament” (1529–1536) passed legislation that made the king supreme in English spiritual affairs. But despite
his political break with Rome, Henry remained decidedly conservative in his religious beliefs, and Catholic
teaching remained prominent. During the reign of his son Edward, England fully enacted the Protestant
Reformation—only to have Catholicism restored by his successor, Mary. Not until the reign of Elizabeth (1558–
1603) was there a lasting religious settlement achieved in England.
The Protestant Reformation did not take the medieval church completely by surprise. There were many
efforts at internal reform before there was a Counter-Reformation. But these reform initiatives did not come from
the papal court, but from religious orders, especially the Jesuits. Saint Ignatius of Loyola, who founded the
Society of Jesus, preached self-discipline and submission to authority. The success of the Protestant Reformation
led to the Council of Trent (1545–1563) which was strictly under papal control and made important reforms
concerning internal church discipline; but not a single doctrinal concession was made to the Protestants.
The Protestant reformers perhaps never contemplated a reform outside or against their societies.
Nevertheless, the Reformation brought about lasting changes in religious life, education, and the image and role
of women.
The next section of the chapter focuses on family life in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800). It is noted
that late marriages became more frequent and were arranged, but not forced on children by parents. On the
average, the family consisted of a husband, wife, and two to four children who survived into adulthood. Birth
control was practiced but was not acceptable to the church and rather ineffective in any event. Wet-nursing was
also condemned by the church and aristocracy. Indeed, to some it was evidence of an unloving family
relationship; but love and affection are relative to time and culture.
Finally, the chapter surveys the literary careers of two of the Renaissance’s greatest literary figures:
Cervantes and Shakespeare.
Focus Questions
1.
What problems in the church contributed to the Protestant Reformation? Why was the church unable to suppress
dissent as it had earlier?
What were the basic similarities and differences between the ideas of Luther and Zwingli? Between Luther and
Calvin? How did the differences tend to affect the success of the Protestant movement?
Why did the Reformation begin in Germany? What political factors contributed to its success there as opposed to
France, Spain, or Italy?
What was the Catholic Counter-Reformation? What reforms did the Council of Trent introduce? Was the
Protestant Reformation healthy for the Catholic Church?
Why did Henry VIII break with Rome? Was the “new” church he established really Protestant? How did the
English church change under his successors?
How did the Reformation affect women in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? How did relations between
men and women, family size, and child care change during this period?
2.
3.
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6.
ID’s
People
Anabaptists
Anglican Church
Boleyn, Anne
Calvin, John
Catherine of Aragon
Charles I of Spain/Emperor
Charles V
English Calvinists
(Puritans/Pilgrims/ Separatists)
Frederick the Wise of Saxony
Henry VIII (1509-1547)
Huguenots
Huss, John
Ignatius Loyola
Jesuits
Laity
Luther, Martin
Presbyterians
Schmalkaldic League
Tetzel, Johann
Weber, Max
Wycliffe, John
Zwingli, Ulrich
Countries/Land
Holy Roman Empire
Time Periods/Events
Babylonian
Captivity/Avignon Papacy
Catholic/Counter
Reformation
Council of Trent
Diet of Worms (1521)
German Peasants’ Revolt
Great Schism
Terms
95 Theses
Act of Succession
Act of Supremacy
Egalitarian
Elect
Excommunication
Index of Prohibited Books
Indulgences
Justification by faith
Papal bull
Peace of Augsburg
Predestination
Priesthood of believers
Purgatory
Transubstantiation