Download sociology: perspective, theory, and method

Chapter 1
SOCIOLOGY: PERSPECTIVE,
THEORY, AND METHOD
Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and
Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
•LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us
understand that society shapes our individual lives.
•LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global perspective is
important in today’s world.
•LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for
developing public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and
for advancing in a career.
•LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to historical social changes.
•LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major theoretical approaches.
Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and
Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
•LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research orientations.
•LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in sociological
research.
•LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological
research.
•LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might choose each of
sociology’s research methods.
•LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out
sociological research.
The Power of Society
• Do we simply “pick” our marriage partners?
The Sociological Perspective
• Sociologists look for general patterns in the
behavior of particular individuals.
• Society shapes what people think and do in
patterned ways in everyday life.
• Marginality, crisis, and rapid change enhance
the ability to see sociologically.
LO 1.1 Explain how the sociological perspective helps us
understand that society shapes our individual lives.
The Sociological Perspective: Seeing
Society in Our Everyday Life
Durkheim
• Suicide study findings and analysis still hold true in
current research studies.
• Differences between those who commit suicide and
those who do not is social integration.
Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life
• Sociological imagination (Mills)
– Society, not people, is main cause of poverty
and other social problems.
– Sociological imagination turns personal
problems into public issues to mitigate
change.
Seeing Sociologically: Marginality and Crisis
• Greater marginality is related to better ability
to use the sociological perspective.
• Crisis or rapid change encourages use of
sociological perspective (Mills).
The Importance of a Global Perspective:
What Is…?
• Global perspective
– Study of the larger world and our society’s
place in it
• Global perspective importance
– Sociology shows that our place in society
profoundly affects our life experiences.
LO 1.2 State several reasons that a global
perspective is important in today’s world.
The Importance of a Global Perspective:
Understanding Categories
• Broad categories of level of economic
development
– High-income countries
– Middle-income countries
– Low-income countries
The Importance of a Global Perspective
• Where we live shapes the lives we lead.
• Societies are increasingly interconnected through
technology, economics, and immigration.
• Many social problems that we face in the United
States are more serious elsewhere.
• Thinking globally is a good way to learn more about
ourselves.
Applying the Sociological Perspective:
Sociology and Public Policy
• Sociologists help shape public policy.
– Laws and regulations guide life and work in
communities.
– Examples: Racial desegregation, school
busing, divorce laws
LO 1.3 Identify the advantages of sociological thinking for developing
public policy, for encouraging personal growth, and for advancing in
a career.
Applying the Sociological Perspective:
Sociology and Personal Growth
• Sociology
– Aids in assessment of the truth of “common
sense”
– Helps in evaluation of the opportunities and
constraints of everyday lives
– Empowers people to be active participants in
society
– Helps people live in a diverse world
Careers: The “Sociology Advantage”
A sociology background
• Excellent preparation for working world
• Important preparation careers in teaching and research
in sociology and a wide range of other professional
positions
• Required preparation for clinical sociologists
Social Change and Development of
Sociology
• In 18th and 19th century Europe
– Rise of factory-based, industrial economy
– Explosive growth of cities
– New ideas about democracy, political rights,
and individualism
LO 1.4 Link the origins of sociology to
historical social changes.
Science and Sociology
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
•Was French social thinker who coined the term
“sociology” in 1838
•Introduced approach called positivism
•Saw sociology as product of three historical
stages
Sociological Theory: What Is…?
• Theory
– Statement of how and why specific facts are
related
• Theoretical approach
– Basic image of society that guides thinking
and research
LO 1.5 Summarize sociology’s major
theoretical approaches.
The Structural-Functional Approach
The basics
• Macro-level orientation
• Societal parts integrated to promote solidarity and stability
Key elements
• Social structure
• Social function
– Manifest functions
– Latent functions
Theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Spencer
Social-Conflict Approach: What Is…?
Social-conflict approach
• Sees society as arena of
inequality that generates
conflict and change
Gender-conflict theory
• Focuses on inequality
and conflict between
women and men
Race-conflict theory
• Focuses on inequality
and conflict between
people of different racial
and ethnic categories
Social-Conflict Approach
The basics
• Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social
inequality.
• Dominant group versus disadvantaged group relations vary.
Key elements
• Social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole
rejected.
• Society structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of
the majority.
Theorists
• Karl Marx and W.E.B Du Bois
Social-Conflict Approach
Evaluation
• Social-conflict approach used to understand society and
to bring about societal change that would reduce
inequality
• Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly
negative view of society
Feminism and the Gender-Conflict Approach
The basics
• Gender-conflict theory: Focus on inequality and
conflict between women and men
• Feminism: Advocacy of social equality for women
and men linked to gender-conflict theory
Theorists
• Harriet Martineau
• Jane Addams
LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in
sociological research.
The Race-Conflict Approach
The basics
• Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of
different racial and ethnic categories
• Suggests racial conflict still issue in United States
Theorists
• Ida Wells Barnett
• W.E.B. Du Bois
Social-Conflict Theories
Evaluation
• Large following gained in recent decades
• Focuses on inequality, but largely ignores how shared
values and interdependence unify members of a society
• Cannot claim scientific objectivity
Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
The basics
• Focuses on social interactions in specific situations
• Views society as the product of everyday interactions of
individuals
Key elements
• Society is shared, dynamic constructed reality developed
through interaction.
Theorists
• Weber
• Mead
Sports: Playing the Theory Game
• Structural-functional: Recreation and help social
relationship building.
• Social-conflict: Social inequality exists in sports.
• Gender-conflict: Gender equality is not evident, especially
in earnings and prestige.
• Race-conflict: Racial conflict still exists.
• Symbolic-interaction: Understanding varies by each player.
Three Ways to Do Sociology
• All sociologists want to learn about the social
world.
• Three ways to do sociological research
– Positivist sociology
– Interpretive sociology
– Critical sociology
LO 1.6 Describe sociology’s three research
orientations.
Positivist Sociology: What Is…?
• Positivist sociology
– Study of society based on scientific observation of
social behavior
• Empirical evidence
– Information we can verify with our senses
• Science
– Logical system that develops knowledge from direct,
systematic observation
Concepts and Variables: What Is…?
• Concept
– Mental construct; represents some part of the
world in a simplified form
• Variable
– Concept that changes from case to case
Measurement: What Is…?
• Measurement
– Procedure for determining the value of a
variable in a specific case
• Variable operationalization
– Specifying exactly what is to be measured
before assigning variable value
Statistics: What Is…?
• Descriptive statistics
– State what is “average” for a large population
• Most commonly used descriptive
statistics
– Mean
– Median
– Mode
Reliability and Validity: What Is…?
• Reliability
– Consistency in measurement
– Process must yield the same results when
repeated
• Validity
– Measuring exactly what you intend to
measure
Correlation and Cause
• Correlation
– Relationship in which two (or more) variables
change together
• Cause and effect
– Relationship in which change in one variable
causes change in another
The Ideal of Objectivity
• Objectivity
– Personal neutrality
• Value-relevant research
– Topics the researcher cares about
• Value-free research
– Dedication to finding truth as it is, rather than as we
think it should be
Interpretive Sociology: What Is…?
• Interpretive sociology
– Study of society that focuses on discovering
the meanings people attach to their social
world
Scientific Versus Interpretive Sociology
• Scientific sociology
focuses on action.
• Interpretive sociology
focuses on meaning.
• Scientific sociology
sees an objective
reality.
• Interpretive sociology
sees reality.
• Scientific sociology
favors quantitative
data.
• Interpretive sociology
favors qualitative
data.
Weber’s Concept of Verstehen
• German word for “understanding”
• Interpretive sociologist’s role
– Observe what people do
– Share in their world of meaning
– Appreciate why they act as they do
Critical Sociology: What Is…?
• Critical sociology
– Focuses on the need for social change
– Asks moral and political questions
– Rejects Weber’s goal of value-free sociology
– Emphasizes sociologists social activism in
pursuit of greater social equality
Sociology as Politics
• Scientific sociologists
– Object to taking sides in this way
– Claims critical sociology
• Critical sociologists
– All research is political in that it either calls for
change or does not
Research Orientation and Theory
• Gender can affect sociological research in
five ways
– Androcentricity, over-generalizing, gender
blindness, double standards, and
interference
LO 1.7 Identify the importance of gender in
sociological research.
Research Ethics
• Sociologists must be aware that research can
harm as well as help subjects and
communities.
• American Sociological Association
– Established formal guidelines for conducting
research
LO 1.8 Discuss the importance of ethics to
sociological research.
Research Methods: What Is…?
• Research methods
– Systematic plan for doing research
• Four methods of sociological investigation
–
–
–
–
Experiments
Surveys
Participant observation
Existing sources
LO 1.9 Explain why a researcher might
choose each of sociology’s research
methods.
Research Methods: What Is…?
• Experiment
– Research method for investigating cause and
effect under highly controlled conditions
• Hypothesis
– Statement of a possible relationship between
two (or more) variables
Steps of the Experiment
1. State which variable is the independent variable (the “cause” of the
change) and which is the dependent variable (the “effect,” the thing
that is changed)
2.
Measure the initial value of the dependent variable
3. Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable (the
“cause” or “treatment”)
4. Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any,
took place.
5. If the expected change took place, the experiment supports the
hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must be modified.
Asking Questions: Survey Research
• Survey
– Subjects respond to series of statements or question
on questionnaire or interview.
• Population
– Any set of people or events from which the sample is
selected and to which the study results will
generalize.
• Sample
– Group of people or events drawn from a population.
In the Field: Participant Observation
• Participant observation
– Systematically observe people while joining them in
their routine activities.
• Cultural anthropologists
– Using “fieldwork” to study societies
– Making most participant observation exploratory and
descriptive
Using Available Data: Existing Sources
• Sociologists make use of existing sources of
data collected by others
– U.S. Census Bureau
– United Nations
– World Bank
• Weakness
– Data form incompatibility
– Data accuracy
Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in
Sociological Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is your topic?
What have others already learned?
What, exactly, are your questions?
What will you need to carry out research?
Might the research cause harm?
LO 1.10 Recall the ten important steps in
carrying out sociological research.
Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in
Sociological Research
6. What method will you use?
7. How will you record the data?
8. What do the data tell you?
9. What are your conclusions?
10. How can you share what you have learned?