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Absolute Adjective The BASE form of an ADJECTIVE on a scale of comparison, for example, big, in contrast with the COMPARATIVE bigger and the SUPERLATIVE biggest. See also Abstract Noun Abstract nouns include love, optimism, truth, freedom, belief, hope and communism. They refer to non-concrete entities. See also Active A value of VOICE for a VERB, the other value being PASSIVE. See also Additive Adverb A type of ADVERB which offers a choice between two or more items, e.g. You either leave or stay. See also Adjective An open word class which expresses an attribute. The attribute is expressed either by an ATTRIBUTIVE adjective (a red car) or by a PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE (my car is red). See also Adjective Phrase A phrase headed by an adjective (e.g. proud, good, happy). The Head may be premodified (very good). Certain Heads may be postmodified (proud of you), or can be pre- and postmodified (very proud of you). See also Adjunct This is an optional constituent in a clause or in a phrase. In a clause, it usually describes how, when or where something happened (John ran quickly, David retired when he was sixty, We met him in the cinema). Adverb An open word class which includes happily, slowly, quietly, now, and very. Adverbs can modify an adjective (e.g. very big), another adverb (e.g. very quietly) or a verb (e.g. John walked slowly). See also Adverb Phrase A phrase headed by an adverb (e.g. quietly, carefully). In an adverb phrase, the Head word can be premodified as (e.g. too quietly, quite carefully). It can be postmodified (e.g. carefully enough). An adverb phrase can also consist of a Head which is both premodified and postmodified (e.g. very luckily for us). See also Agent The entity which performs the action described by a VERB (John kicked the ball). The agent may be missing in a PASSIVE construction (cf. The ball was kicked). See also Agentless Passive In a typical passive construction, the AGENT occurs in the by-phrase: The ball was kicked by John. In an agentless passive, the by-phrase is missing: The ball was kicked. See also Agreement This usually refers to Subject-verb agreement, and denotes the fact that a verb ending agrees with the number of the Subject (the dog barks / the dogs bark). Agreement applies only to PRESENT TENSE verbs. It is also known as concord. See also Alternative Interrogative A type of interrogative sentence in which two or more alternatives are presented, e.g. Should I telephone or send an email? See also Anticipatory it Anticipatory it occupies the Subject position and "anticipates" a Subject that has been postponed. For example, It's true that she has finished with Mike. In this example the Subject is It, which substitutes for the extraposed clause that she has finished with Mike. Cf. the version with extraposition That she has finished with Mike is true. See also Aspect Aspect refers to the way an action denoted by a verb should be viewed with respect to time. See also Asyndetic Coordination Asyndetic coordination involves two or more CONJOINS which are not linked by a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION. For example: Slowly, carefully, the thief crept towards the diamond. See also Attributive Adjective An ADJECTIVE is attributive if it occurs before the noun which it modifies (a delicious taste, an entertaining film) See also Auxiliary Verb An auxiliary verb (or HELPING VERB) occurs with a MAIN VERB. Examples: (1) Sue has made a chocolate cake (2) Kate is talking to her boss (3) I do not like beans (4) The cat was chased by the blackbird (5) You must eat your beans See also Bare Infinitive An INFINITIVE verb which occurs without to, e.g. Help me open the door. Distinct from the TO-INFINITIVE: Help me to open the door. See also Bare Infinitive Clause A clause in which a bare infinitive form of the verb is used, I made John leave. See also Base Form The base form is the form of a word to which INFLECTIONS may be added, eg. walks, walked, walking See also Cardinal Numeral A subclass of numerals which includes one, 1, twenty, a hundred. See also Case IIn English, case is illustrated by the PERSONAL PRONOUNS, where different forms of the pronoun indicate their grammatical relationship to the VERB. For example: (1) He is a plumber, He has SUBJECTIVE case. (2) I saw him, him has OBJECTIVE case. See also Central Adjective A central adjective is one that fulfils all the criteria for identifying adjectives. These criteria are: being GRADABLE, having COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms, and appearing in ATTRIBUTIVE or PREDICATIVE positions. See also Central Determiner A subclass of DETERMINER which includes DEFINITE and INDEFINITE ARTICLES as well as POSSESSIVE and DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns. Central determiners occur after PREDETERMINERS and before POSTDETERMINERS. See also Circumstantial Adverb A collective term for MANNER, TIME, and PLACE ADVERBS. See also Clause A clause is a string of words which expresses a proposition and typically consists of at least a SUBJECT and a verb: David sings, Yesterday we visited Canterbury. A SENTENCE contains one or more clauses. The sentence She retired early because she was ill contains two clauses, a MATRIX clause, consisting of the whole sentence, and a SUBORDINATE clause, because she was ill. See also Cleft it A special use of the PERSONAL PRONOUN it which appears in CLEFT sentences: It was John who broke the window. See also Cleft Sentence A sentence which is split into two clauses, placing emphasis on one part (the "focus"): It is her kindness that I will remember. Here, the focus is her kindness. See also Closed-Class Item Word classes are of two types: OPEN-CLASS and closed-class. Closed-class items include AUXILIARIES, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, DETERMINERS and PRONOUNS. These classes consist of finite sets of words which can be exhaustively listed, and they do not admit new members. See also Code One of the NICE PROPERTIES of AUXILIARY VERBS. The DO AUXILIARY can replace the verb under ELLIPSIS. John wants to go to the cinema, and so does Mary. See also Collective Noun A noun which refers to a group of individual people or animals: population, herd, flock, committee. Common Noun A noun which refers to common, everyday entities such as: cat, dog, sister, bucket, book. See also Comparative The form of an adjective or an adverb at the middle point on a scale of comparison. Comparison is expressed using an -er ending or with more: Tim is taller than Mary Amy is more industrious than Paul John reads more quickly than David See also Comparative Clause A type of subordinate clause which expresses comparison, and which is introduced by than or as: She is older than I expected She is (not) as old as I expected See also Complement A constituent of a phrase which is required to complete the meaning of the Head. In a review of the book, of the book is the Complement of the Head review. Similarly, in detectives examined the scene, the scene is the Complement of the Head examined. Complex Preposition A two- or three-word preposition: along with, because of, due to. See also Complex Sentence A complex sentence contains a main clause and at least one subordinate clause. For example, Your dinner is cold because you were late. The subordinate clause is because you were late. See also Compound Sentence A compound sentence contains coordinated main clauses: [Debbie bought the wine] and [Ben cooked the meal] See also Concessive Clause A type of subordinate clause which expresses concession, usually introduced by although or though: He bought me a lovely gift, although he can't really afford it. See also Concord Another term for AGREEMENT. See also Conditional Clause A type of subordinate clause which expresses a condition, typically introduced by if : I'll be home early if I can get a taxi. See also Conjoin An element which undergoes COORDINATION. In the following examples, the conjoins are bracketed: [John] and [Mary] The river was [wide] and [deep] He [came home] and [lit the fire] See also Conjunct Adverb Conjunct adverbs connect two sentences and indicate a logical relationship between them: Your have not repaid your loan. Therefore, we cannot give you any more credit. Other conjunct adverbs include: nevertheless, nonetheless, otherwise, in addition, on the other hand See also Conjunction A CLOSED wordclass which includes COORDINATING words such as and, but, and or, and SUBORDINATING words such as because, if, and when. See also Constituent A constituent is a word or a group of words which acts syntactically as a unit. Constituents may be words, phrases, or clauses. See also Content Word Another term for OPEN-CLASS words or LEXICAL words. See also Coordinating Conjunction A type of CONJUNCTION which connects elements of equal status. The most common coordinating conjunctions are and and but. Also known as a COORDINATOR. See also Coordination Coordination involves the syntactic linking of two or more elements of equal status: [John] and [Mary] [up] and [down] David [sings] and [plays guitar] See also Coordinator Another term for COORDINATING CONJUNCTION. See also Copular Verb Copular (or linking) verbs link the Subject to the element that follows the them. This element says more about the Subject: Jill is a lawyer That sounds good The most common copular verb is be. Count Noun A type of COMMON noun which is countable. Count nouns can be SINGULAR (dog) or PLURAL (dogs). See also Declarative Sentence A type of sentence which typically makes a statement: Bob is a fast swimmer. See also Degree Adverb A subclass of ADVERB which specifies the degree to which some property applies. Degree adverbs include very and extremely. See also Definite Article The definite article is the. See also Demonstrative Pronoun The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. See also Denominal Adjective An ADJECTIVE derived from a NOUN, e.g. a mathematical puzzle = a puzzle based on mathematics. See also Determiner Determiners occur before NOUNS and indicate the kind of reference which the noun has: the boy a bus our car these children both hospitals See also Direct Object A Direct Object follows a TRANSITIVE verb, and may be defined as that part of the clause which is affected by the "action" of the verb. For example, in Jim sold his car, the Direct Object is his car. The Direct Object may be identified by asking what or who is affected: Jim sold his car Q. What did Jim sell? A. His car ( = the Direct Object) See also Disjunct Adverb A subclass of ADVERB which comments on the sentence as a whole. Honestly, I couldn't believe it. Unfortunately, Kim has had to leave us. See also Ditransitive Verb Ditransitive verbs take two Complements, an Indirect Object and a Direct Object. Robin gave Linda a book The teacher asked James a question See also Do Auxiliary The auxiliary verb do used with a main verb when forming interrogative or negative sentences, or for adding emphasis. Also called the DUMMY OPERATOR. I do not like cheese Don't cross the road Do you want some coffee? Do leave me alone! See also Dummy it A special use of the PERSONAL PRONOUN it used in references to time and the weather: It is raining It's five o'clock Also called PROP IT. See also Dummy operator Another term for the DO AUXILIARY See also -Ed Participle A NONFINITE form of a VERB characterised by the -ed INFLECTION. It is used to express perfective aspect (the chairman has resigned), and the passive (the chairman was persuaded to resign). See also -Ed Participle Clause A type of subordinate clause whose verb is in the -ed participle form, Tired of the long meeting, John left. See also Ellipsis Ellipsis occurs when clauses, phrases, or words are omitted from a sentence, but where the meaning is recoverable from the context. For example: A: Can I have a glass of wine? B: Yes you can [have a glass of wine] The phrase in brackets is the ellipted material. Emphasis One of the NICE PROPERTIES of AUXILIARY VERBS, eg I do like carrots, I can speak French.. See also Enclitic A contracted form of an AUXILIARY VERB. I have left ~I've left See also Exclamative Sentence An exclamative is a sentence used as an exclamation. For example, How tall you've grown! Exclusive Adverb A type of ADVERB which excludes some possibility. For example, It was just Mary who saw me. See also Existential Sentence A sentence that contains existential there, e.g. there is a man in the garden. See also Existential there This element is used to introduce existential sentences. Eg There is a fly in my soup. Different from its ADVERBIAL (locative) use. See also Extraposition A process in which a clause that acts as a Subject or Direct Object is displaced from its normal position, and is replaced by anticipatory it. For example: That John isn't coming is clear ~It is clear that John isn't coming See also False Coordination Use of a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION where no COORDINATION actually takes place, eg. Try and come tomorrow. See also Finite A verb is finite if it carries TENSE. If it does not carry tense it is NONFINITE. In the following example the finite verb is highlighted: She eats too much. See also Finite Clause A clause containing a finite verb. For example, Henry has a large black cat. The following types of clause are always finite: if-clauses, that-clauses, and zero thatclauses. See also Formal Analysis A formal analysis is one which looks at structural categories such as word classes, phrases, and clauses. See also Formulaic Expression A type of MINOR WORD CLASS expressing greetings, farewells, and apologies, eg. hello, goodbye, sorry. See also Function Word Function word and grammatical word are terms used for CLOSED CLASS words such as PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION and PRONOUN. See also Functional Analysis A functional analysis is one which looks at the grammatical functions of constituents, such as SUBJECT, DIRECT OBJECT, etc. See also Generic When a noun phrase is used to refer to all members of the class denoted by the phrase, the noun phrase is said to have generic reference. For example, Monkeys are hairy. Genitive Marker The -'s ending on NOUNS which usually indicates possession, e.g. John's book. Gradable Both ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS are gradable, in that they are subject to intensification and COMPARISON. The adjective happy is intensified in the following examples: very happy, extremely happy, quite happy, happier, and happiest. See also Grammatical Hierarchy This term refers to the hierarchical ordering of grammatical units like words and phrases. Words are at the lowest level and sentences are the highest. See also Grammatical Word Another term for function word. See also Head The central, obligatory element in a phrase. The Head of a phrase determines the phrase type, e.g. if the Head is a noun, then the phrase is a noun phrase. Helping Verb Another term for AUXILIARY VERB. See also If-Clause A subordinate clause which is introduced by the subordinator if, e.g. If you leave, I will too. Another term for if-clause is conditional clause. See also Imperative Sentence A sentence type usually used to issue orders or directions. The verb is in its base form, e.g. Move over! See also Indefinite article The indefinite article is a(n). A occurs before a consonant (a bag) and an before a vowel (an apple). See also Indefinite Pronoun A type of PRONOUN. Forms include: something, anything and nothing. See also Independent Relative Clause Another term for nominal relative clause. See also Indirect Object The Indirect Object is usually the 'receiver' of an action described by a verb: John gave Mary flowers. Verbs that require Indirect Objects are called DITRANSITIVE VERBS. See also Infinitive The infinitive form of a verb is the form which follows to, eg. to go, to be, to wish. However, infinitives can occur without to: Help me open the door. Infinitives without to are known as BARE INFINITIVES. See also Infinitive Clause There are two types of infinitive clauses: to-infinitive clause and bare infinitive clause. Both contain a verb in the infinitive form, e.g. I want to go (to-infinitive). All I did was touch it (bare infinitive). Inflection An inflection is an ending which carries grammatical information such as TENSE or NUMBER and is added to the BASE FORM of a word, eg. -ed (walked), -s (walks). See also -Ing Participle A form of VERB ending in -ing (ADJECTIVES can also have this form, under the cover term PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE). An -ing participle can be used to form the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT. See also -Ing Participle Clause An -ing participal clause is a nonfinite subordinate clause in which the verb is in the -ing participle form: Running away is a bad idea. See also Inherent Adjective A type of ADJECTIVE which expresses an attribute or quality of a NOUN, e.g. red car. See also Interjection An interjection is an exclamation (MINOR WORD CLASS), e.g. Damn!, Oh!, Good heavens! See also Interrogative Adverb An interrogative adverb is a type of adverb used in wh-questions such as, How did you do that? They are subsumed under the general term wh-word, like interrogative pronouns and the relative equivalents. See also Interrogative Pronoun Who, which, whose, whom can be used in wh-quentions like, Who is Henry going to invite? Do not confuse interrogative pronouns with DETERMINERS of the same form, e.g. which book. They are subsumed under the general term wh-word, like interrogative adverbs and the relative equivalents. See also Interrogative Sentence An interrogative sentence is a type of sentence which usually asks a question. For example, Will you go to the supermarket for me? There are four types, yes/no interrogatives, wh-interrogatives, alternative interrogatives and tag questions. See also Intransitive Verb An intransitive verb is one which does not take any Complements, e.g. Jake cried, Sue slept. See also Inversion One of the NICE PROPERTIES of AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliaries can be inverted in interrogatives, e.g. can you run fast? See also Lexical Verb Another term for MAIN VERB. See also Lexical Word Lexical word is another term for CONTENT or OPEN-CLASS word. See also -Ly Adverb An ADVERB formed by adding ly to an adjective, eg. bad ~badly. See also Main Clause A main clause is not subordinate to or dependent on any other clause, eg. I am happy. Also called matrix clauses. Main Verb A main verb is a VERB with independent meaning which can stand alone in a sentence. For example, I am here. He is signing the contract. See also Major Word Class The major word classes are NOUN, DETERMINER, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, VERB and CONJUNCTION. Many, though not all, of these are also open-class items. See also Manner Adverb A type of CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERB which expresses the manner in which an action is performed. He ran quickly. See also Mass Noun A noun denoting an undifferentiated substance, e.g. wool, nitrogen, sugar, water and music. These are also called NON-COUNT NOUNS. See also Matrix Clause The whole of I think I'd like coffee is a matrix clause, consisting of a main clause and a subordinate clause. Matrix clauses are generally finite, but cf. imperative clauses. See also Minor Word Class The minor word classes include FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS, INTERJECTIONS, PARTICLES, EXISTENTIAL THERE and special cases of the personal pronoun it, dummy it, prop it, anticipatory it and cleft it. Most, though not all, of these are also closed-class items See also Modal Auxiliary A modal auxiliary is a type of AUXILIARY VERB. These auxiliaries express meanings such as permission (may), obligation (must), prediction (will, shall), ability (can), etc. See also Modification In a phrase (e.g. a noun phrase) another phrase can occur before or after the Head word. These phrases add something to the meaning of the head (i.e. they modify their meaning). For example: Red lorry, father of the bride. In the first example, the Head lorry is premodified by red. In the second example, the Head father is postmodified by the preposition phrase of the bride. Monotransitive Verb Monotransitive verbs are verbs that take one Complement, namely a Direct Object, e.g. Tim cut the grass. See also Mood Mood is used to classify verbs e.g. indicative, subjunctive forms. It is also used for classifying clauses - declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamative. Multi-Word Verb A multi-word verb is a unit composed of a verb plus one or more other words, eg. Dad woke up this morning. The semi-auxiliaries are multi-word verbs, eg. I am going to leave now. See also Negation One of the NICE PROPERTIES of AUXILIARY VERBS, which can have a NEGATIVE marker added to them, e.g. You can leave -- You can't leave. See also NICE Properties Four properties of AUXILIARY VERBS which distinguish them from main verbs, namely, Negation, Inversion, Code, and Emphasis. See also Nominal Adjective ADJECTIVES that denote a class of entities by describing one of their ATTRIBUTES are called nominal adjectives, e.g. The poor, the sick, the elderly, my local. They can have COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms, e.g. the best. See also Nominal Relative clause A type of relative clause that does not have a Head word. The man who I know contains a standard relative clause with a Head noun man. In what I want is a new car, what I want is a nominal relative clause, which may be paraphrased as "the thing which I want". They are also known as independent relative clauses. See also Non-Count Nouns A NOUN that refers to an indivisible whole. They only have SINGULAR forms. Examples include courage, butter, software. They are also called MASS NOUNS See also Nonfinite Verb A Nonfinite verb does not carry tense agreement. The INFINITIVE, -ED PARTICIPLE and -ING PARTICIPLE are nonfinite verb forms. See also Nonfinite Clause A clause that contains a nonfinite verb, e.g. (1) To err is human contains a to-infinitive clause. (2) I made her laugh contains a bare infinitive clause. (3) Turning the corner, I ran over the vicar contains an -ing participle clause. (4) She sat in the corner, snubbed by her colleagues contains an -ed participle clause. See also Non-Inherent Adjective A type of ADJECTIVE that does not denote an ATTRIBUTE of a NOUN, e.g. small businessman. See also Notional Agreement Agreement between a Subject and verb that depends upon our interpretation of the Subject, rather than its form, e.g. the government is/are useless. The agreement here depends on whether we treat government as an entity in its own right, or as a collection of people. See also Noun A noun is a word which can inflect for number and which usually names people, places or things. See also Noun Phrase A string of words that has a noun as its Head: computers the man in the moon young people who live in Italy NPs may take a determiner phrase as a premodifier, and PPs, to-infinitive clauses or relative clauses as postmodifiers. Number Contrast The difference between SINGULAR and PLURAL forms of NOUNS. See also Numeral An OPEN CLASS of words that comprises all numbers, and is a subclass of the class of NOUNS. Different types include CARDINAL NUMERALS and ORDINAL NUMERALS. Numerals can function as NOUNS or as DETERMINERS. See also Objective Case The form of PRONOUNS that can appear in the highlighted position of the following example: I love John/him. See also Open-Class Item This term refers to wordclasses such as the main lexical categories NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE and ADVERB, which can have new words added to them. See also Operator When more than one verb occurs in a finite verb phrase, the first auxiliary verb is called the operator. The operator carries negation, and inverts with the Subject in interrogative sentences, . In the sentence Ivy will be working for your father, will is the operator. Ordinal Numeral A type of NUMERAL, including items like first, 1st. See also Paradigm A list of forms that a particular word may assume. For example: write, writes, writing, wrote, written are different forms of the verb paradigm write. Particularizer Adverb A type of ADVERB which focuses attention on what follows, e.g. mostly in This is mostly true. See also Participial Adjective An adjective in the form of an -ed participle or an -ing participle. See also Particle A MINOR WORD CLASS consisting of the PARTICLE to (e.g. I want you to leave), as well as for (It's difficult for you to leave) and with (I can't read with you standing behind me). See also Particle To The PARTICLE which appears in TO-INFINITIVES: I want to leave. See also Part Of Speech Nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and verbs, amongst others, belong to different word classes and are known as Parts of Speech. Passive In a passive sentence, the PASSIVE AUXILIARY be is combined with the -ed participle of a verb, e.g. John was kicked. See also Passive Auxiliary This is the auxiliary verb be which is combined with the -ed participle of a verb to form the PASSIVE, eg. the money was stolen See also Past A value for TENSE, which indicates that the event referred to took place in the past. It is indicated by an -ed inflection on regular verbs. See also Perfective Aspect PERFECTIVE ASPECT is grammatically encoded by the PERFECTIVE AUXILIARY + ED PARTICIPLE of a VERB. For example, I have broken the glass. Perfective aspect indicates that an action/situation started in the past but has current relevance. See also Perfective Auxiliary The AUXILIARY have is used in combination with the -ED PARTICIPLE to denote PERFECTIVE ASPECT, eg. We have decided to leave See also Peripheral Adjective Peripheral adjectives do not fulfil all the criteria for membership of the ADJECTIVE class. See also Person I (the speaker/writer) is a first person pronoun, you (the listener/reader) is a second person pronoun, and he/she/it are third person pronoun. First and third person pronouns also have a plural form: we (first person plural) and they (third person plural), whereas you is both the singular and plural form. The form of the verb has to agree with person. For example, I am, you are, he is, we are they are. For regular verbs all forms are the same except in the third person singular present tense which takes -s (e.g. she laughs, it works) - this is AGREEMENT or CONCORD. See also Personal Pronoun Personal pronouns are a type of PRONOUN which refer to people. They have SUBJECTIVE and OBJECTIVE forms depending on their function. Also includes it. See also Phrasal Verb A phrasal verb is a MULTI-WORD VERB made up of a VERB and ADVERB. For example, The toaster blew up. Give up teasing your sister. The meaning of the phrasal verb is not usually obvious from the meaning of the parts. For example, blew up means 'exploded' and give up means 'stop'. See also Phrasal-Prepositional Verb A MULTI-WORD VERB comprising a VERB, an ADVERB and a PREPOSITION: Jenny is looking forward to meeting you I don't know how you put up with him. See also Phrase A phrase is a syntactic unit which may be composed of one or more words. For example, Jim, the man; the girl in the corner. A phrase takes its name from the Head word. For example, ADJECTIVE PHRASE, ADVERB PHRASE, VERB PHRASE, PREPOSITION PHRASE. Phrases may have premodifiers and postmodifiers. See also Place Adverb A type of CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERB that refers to the direction in which an action is taking place, put the book there. See also Plural A form of the NOUN indicated by the -s INFLECTION, denoting more than one entity. The converse of SINGULAR. See also Polysyndetic Coordination COORDINATION in which all CONJOINS are linked by COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS, John and Mary and Bill. See also Possessive Pronoun The possessive pronouns are my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs. They indicate possession. They can function as NOUNS, for example, Is this yours? Pass me mine, or as DETERMINERS, e.g. my house. See also Postdeterminer A type of DETERMINER which occurs after PREDETERMINERS and CENTRAL DETERMINERS. They include CARDINAL and ORDINAL NUMERALS, e.g. my two cats. See also Postmodifier A phrase or clause which follows and modifies the meaning of a Head, for example The book on the table The man who sells fruit fast enough Postpositive Adjective Postpositive adjectives occur after the nouns which they modify, for example, the governor general. See also Predeterminer A type of DETERMINER which generally specifies quantity in a NOUN. They include ORDINAL NUMERALS such as twice, half, all, and both. They occur before CENTRAL DETERMINERS and POSTDETERMINERS. See also Predicate Everything that follows the Subject in a sentence is the Predicate of that sentence. For example, in the sentence the farmer shot the rabbit, the Predicate is shot the rabbit. See also Predicative Adjective A predicative adjective heads an ADJECTIVE PHRASE which follows a COPULAR VERB. E.g. He is clever. See also Predicator This is a functional term for the Head of the Predicate of a sentence. In the farmer shot the rabbit, the Predicate is shot the rabbit. The Head of this constituent is shot, which functions as the Predicator. See also Premodifier A phrase which precedes and modifies the meaning of a Head, for example, in very fast the adverb phrase very premodifies fast . Preposition Prepositions are short words, including in, of, by, and with, that occur before a noun phrase. Some prepositions consist of more than one word (along with, out of, up to), and are known as COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS. See also Prepositional Complement The phrase that follows a preposition within a prepositional phrase is called a Prepositional Complement. This is usually a noun phrase. In the following examples, the highlighted phrases are Prepositional Complements: around the shops through the streets on the bed Prepositional Object This term may be used to refer to two things: (1) the Object of a prepositional verb (I agree with your arguments) and (2) a PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT (in the cupboard) Prepositional Verb A prepositional verb is a MULTI-WORD VERB consisting of a VERB + PREPOSITION. For example: Shall we listen to this new CD? I have to look after the kids. See also Prepositional Phrase In general, a prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition (the Head) followed by a noun phrase. For example, before two o'clock, from my grandparents, past the hospital, across the bridge. They can take a premodifier, eg. , just over the bridge. See also Present A value for TENSE. It usually indicates that the action is occuring at the present moment. It is denoted by the -s inflection on regular verbs in the 3rd person singular. See also Primary Verbs The AUXILIARY VERBS be, have and do are called primary verbs when they act as MAIN VERBS. Examples: am a student, I have a car, I did my homework. See also Progressive Aspect Perfective aspect is grammatically encoded by the PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY be + ING PARTICIPLE of a VERB are used. For example, Marie is singing tonight. Sean was reading his paper. Progressive aspect indicates that an action/situation is ongoing. See also Progressive Auxiliary (be) The progressive auxiliary is AUXILIARY VERB be when combined with an -ING PARTICIPLE to form the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT. It must be distinguished from the PASSIVE AUXILIARY. See also Pronoun Pronouns can occur in positions typically occupied by nouns: Ann/she went on holiday to France. The doctor examined the children/them. This is a message for Jane/her. Pronouns have a CASE contrast with SUBJECTIVE and OBJECTIVE forms. We distinguish the following types: PERSONAL, POSSESSIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, REFLEXIVE, RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, INDEFINITE and RECIPROCAL. They are closed-class items. See also Proper Noun A proper noun refers to a particular person or place (e.g. London, Justin). Proper nouns begin with a capital letter and are not normally preceded by DETERMINERS. See also Prop it A special use of the PERSONAL PRONOUN it, also called DUMMY IT, in expressions like: it is raining and hold it! See also Pseudo-Coordination Another term for FALSE COORDINATION. See also Reason Clause A type of subordinate clause, describing the reason why some action or event holds true, e.g. John was an hour late, because he missed the train. See also Reciprocal Pronoun The reciprocal pronouns in English are each other and one another. See also Reduced Relative Clause This is a type of relative clause which lacks a relative adverb or pronoun. For example, the book written by you and the man following us both contain reduced relatives. The full relative equivalents are: the book which was written by you, and the man who is following us. Unlike zero relative clauses, reduced relatives contain nonfinite verbs. See also Reflexive Pronoun A pronoun in the OBJECTIVE CASE followed by the -self ending, e.g. Bill cut himself. We defended ourselves brilliantly. In these examples the highlighted reflexive pronoun refers back to the SUBJECT of the sentence. See also Relative Adverb When, where and why are a relative of ADVERBS. They can occur at the beginning of a RELATIVE CLAUSE, as in the following sentence:. This is the house where Diane was born. See also Relative Clause A relative clause gives more information about a noun or modifies it, as in the following example: The man who bought our house has just won the lottery. Relative clauses contain relative adverbs or pronouns, which do not need to be overt, for example in a ZERO RELATIVE CLAUSE or a REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE. See also Relative Pronoun Who, which, that and whom are relative pronouns. They occur at the beginning of RELATIVE CLAUSES. For example, The cake that I've just baked is too hot to eat. See also Result Clause A subordinate clause which describes the result of some event, e.g. the kitchen was flooded, so we had to eat out. See also Semi-Auxiliary A type of AUXILIARY VERB that is also a MULTI-WORD VERB: I am about to leave You have to sign the form See also Sentence Sentences are strings of words that usually express a proposition. They consist of at least one CLAUSE. See also Simple Preposition A PREPOSITION that consists of a single word, eg. along the road. See also Simple Sentence A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one clause, e.g. John plays football for Liverpool. See also Singular A value of NUMBER CONTRAST used when a single entity is being referred to. The converse of PLURAL. See also Small Clause A small clause is a subordinate clause that contains no verb, as in It made John happy. See also Stranded Preposition PREPOSITIONS are usually followed by nouns. Stranded prepositions do not, as in the following examples: Carla has no one to go with What are you listening to? Subject Subjects can often be described as the constituent that performs the action described by the Predicate, e.g. John kicked the ball. The Predicate is kicked the ball and John performs this action; so John is the Subject of this sentence. See also Subject Clause A Subject clause is a Subject of a Predicate in the form of a clause. For example, To leave now would be rude. The Subject of would be rude is the clause to leave now. This is a type of subordinate clause. See also Subjective Case The form which pronouns take when they function as Subject: he, she, it, we, they are subjective personal pronouns. See also Subject Complement A Subject Complement occurs with a copular verb. It provides additional information about the Subject. For example, Alan is an artist. In this example the noun phrase an artist is the Subject Complement and it provides more information about Alan. Subordinate This term is the converse of superordinate. A clause that is lower on the clause hierarchy than another is subordinate to that one. Every other clause is subordinate to the matrix clause. One subordinate clause may be subordinate to another, for example in [I think [that you know [I like coffee]]], I like coffee is subordinate to that you know. See also Subordinate Clause A subordinate clause occurs at a lower level than some other clause. For example, in I'll clean the bathroom if you clean the lounge, the if-clause is subordinate to the clause I'll clean the bathroom. Further subordinate clauses we distinguish are: relative clauses, that-clauses, small clauses, -ed participle clauses, -ing participle clauses, to-infinitive clauses, bare infinitive clauses, and comparative clauses. See also Subordinating Conjunction Subordinating conjunctions introduce SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Examples include: although, because, if , since, when, while, etc. Also known as a SUBORDINATOR. See also Subordinator Another term for SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION. See also Superlative In the sentence The cheetah is the fastest animal, the ending -est marks the superlative form of the adjective fast. The cheetah is being compared with all other animals and is being picked out for its ability to outrun all the others. Both ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS can be made superlative. Some words do not take the -est ending but require most as in the following example: She was once described as the most beautiful woman in the world. See also Superordinate The converse of SUBORDINATE. A clause higher in the clause hierarchy to another one is superordinate to it. A matrix clause is superordinate to all other clauses. See also Syndetic Coordination This term refers to COORDINATION that has a single COORDINATOR between the last two CONJOINS, as in John, Mary and Bill. See also Tag Question An interrogative string positioned at the end of a sentence, usually seeking confirmation, e.g. It's cold, isn't it? See also Temporal Clause A subordinate clause which expresses 'time when', e.g. I'll ring you again, before I go. See also Tense Tense refers to the grammatical encoding of an event or action in time. English has two tenses, PRESENT and PAST. See also That-Clause A subordinate clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction that. For example, I think that you should leave. See also Time Adverb A type of CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERB that specifies the time an action takes place, for example, I will leave soon. See also To-Infinitive The form of a verb preceded by the PARTICLE TO. For example, in the sentence I want to see it, the string to see is a to-infinitive. See also To-Infinitive Clause A clause containing a verb preceded by the PARTICLE TO. For example, in the sentence I want John to see it, the string John to see it is a to-infinitive clause. See also Transitive Verb A transitive verb is a verb that takes one or more Complements. See also Tree Diagram A visual representation of the syntactic structure of a sentence. See also Verb Verbs are traditionally described as 'doing' or 'action' words. Verbs are an OPEN and MAJOR WORD CLASS and comprise two basic types: MAIN and AUXILIARY VERBS. A verb can be the only unit in a clause e.g. Wait! Verbs are marked for TENSE and show AGREEMENT with the SUBJECT. See also Verb Phrase This is a phrase whose Head word is a verb. Vocative A vocative is a noun phrase which directly addresses someone. For example, Bob, can I have a word? I need that book now, Sarah. Voice Voice refers to the ACTIVE/PASSIVE distinction. For example, Linda bought a Porsche is active, whereas The Porsche was bought by Linda is its passive counterpart. See also Wh-Interrogative An interrogative sentence or clause that begins with an interrogative adverb or pronoun, e.g Who are you trying to phone? See also Wh- Question A question which begins with a wh- word, for example, Who are you? See also Wh- Word Another term for interrogative/relative adverbs and pronouns. See also Word Class Nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and verbs among others are different types or classes of words. They are also known as 'Parts of Speech'. Word classes contain words which share properties. See also Yes/No Interrogative An interrogative sentence or clause that can be answered by 'yes' or 'no'. For example, Would you like a drink? See also Zero Relative Clause A relative clause from which the relative pronoun has been ellipted, for example: This is the car I want (compare: This is the car that I want) Zero That-Clause A that-clause from which the subordinator that has been ellipted, for example He said he'd be a bit late (compare: He said that he'd be a bit late)