Download migdy

Steph’s Book
By: Stephanie A. Diaz
Introduction
Scientist is defined as “one learned in science; a scientific investigator; one
devoted to scientific study; a savant.” In some aspects I fall under this category. I’ve
never believed that something is correct just because someone told me. Everything has a
reason, and I’ll go to great length to prove that there is reason behind every fact even
those that people have a hard time believing, not everything is a “miracle”.
My future goals in life are to graduate with honors, and continue my studies in
medicine at the University of Miami in the infectious infection department. Then what
ever occurs afterwards, I’ll let destiny choose my path.
Education is what everyone needs to survive in today’s society. It doesn’t have to
necessarily be book smarts, but have knowledge in some form. Some people are utter
genius, however, there is no way they could ever drive a car, or ever have enough
courage to ask for a raise or advancement. So they’re many different levels of education
and knowledge.
Not saying the words “I do” are the words that motivates me to challenge myself.
I never want to say those words because I got pregnant, or there is no way I could support
myself so I would have to say those 2 little words just to survive. “I don’t”
Chapter 1

Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology.
N/A

Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/cha
pter1/medialib/0110.jpg

Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
It’s merely accents the importance of structure arrangement and
applies to inanimate material as well as to life.

Describe seven emergent properties associated with life.
A. Order
B. Reproduction
C. Growth and development
D. Energy Utilization
E. Response to the environment
F. Homeostasis
G. Evolutionary Adaptation

Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of the
cell theory and our current knowledge of the cell.
A Powerful instrument called the electron microscope has reveled the
complex structure of cells. It showed that all cells are enclosed be a
membrane that regulates the passage of materials between the cells and
it’s surrounding.

Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic- The DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell into a
nucleus. They also lack the cytoplasmic organelles typical of eukaryotic
cells. Almost all prokaryotic cells have tough external cell walls.
Eukaryotic- By far are more complex, is subdivided by internal
membranes into many different functional compartments, or organelles.
The DNA is organized along with proteins into structures called
chromosomes contained within a nucleus, the largest organelle of most
cells.

Explain, in their own words, what is meant by "form fits function."
Depending what the object is possible of is what it can achieve. As in, a
bird’s build makes flight possible. The correlation between structure and
function can apply to the shape of an entire organism.

List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish among them.
Monera- The simpler structure of the prokaryotic cell distinguishes
bacteria from the eukaryotic kingdoms
Protista- Consists of unicellur eukaryotes and their relatively simple
multi-cellular relatives.
Plantae- Consists of muticellular eukaryotic that carry out photosynthesis.
Fungi- Is defined, in part, by the nutritional mode of its members,
organisms that absorb nutrients after decomposing organic refuse.
Animalia- Consists of multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other
organisms.

Outline the scientific method.
A. Question
B. Hypothesis
C. Experimental Design
D. Collecting data
E. Analyze data
F. Interpretation
G. Write it up

Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
N/A

Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
Technology, especially in the form of new instruments (electrons
microscopes, for examples), extends our ability to observe and measure
and enables scientist to work on questions that were previously
unapproachable.
Chapter 2

Define element and compound.
Element- Any substance that cannot be broken down to any other
substance.
Compound- A chemical combination, in a fixed ratio, or two or more
elements.

State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter.
Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen

Describe the structure of an atom
Neutrons, Protons, and electrons. Neutrons and protons are packed
together tightly to form a dense core, or nucleus, at the center of the atom.
The electrons move about this nucleus at nearly the speed of light

Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight, and
valence.
Atomic Number- number of protons in the nuclei
Mass Number- the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic Weight- The total atomic mass, or mass number
Valence- Bonding capcity

Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of
neutrons.
Subtracting the atomic number and mass number

Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form.
N/A

Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical
bonds.
The attraction of an atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. The more
electronrgative an atom, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons itself

Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
Nonpolar covalent- electrons are shared equally
Polar covalent- If one atom is more electronegative than the other,
electrons are share equally
Ionic bonds-attraction between cations and anions

Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a
covalent or ionic bond.
It occurs when a hydrogen atom covalently bounded to one
electronegative atom also attracted to another electronegative atom.
Examples
1. Science as a process- Scientific method; Question, Hypothesis, experimental
design, collecting data, analyze data, interpretation, write it up.
2. Evolution- How men transformed from apes to humans
3. Relationship of Structure to Function- Birds can fly, on account of, the shape of
their wings, and body.
4. Interdependence in Nature- Everything in nature is dependant on each other, as
in, soil feeds flower, flower feeds animal, animal’s wastes feeds soil, so on , and
so on.
5. Science, Technology, and Society- Biology, Microscope, Educated
Chapter 3

Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life.
All organisms familiar to us are made mostly of water and life in a world
where water dominates climate and, many other features of the
environment. Most cells are surrendered by water, and cells contain from
70% to 95% water.

Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what
properties emerges as a result of this structure.
Water is an excellent solvent (The dissolving agent of a solution. Water is
most solvent known). Water has a high heat capacity (The degree to
which substance changes temperature in response to a gain or loss of
heat). Water has a strong cohesion (The attraction between like
substances), and high surface tension (A measure of how difficult it is to
stretch or break the surface of a liquid). Water adheres (The attraction of
unlike substance) to other molecules.

Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form
hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds between molecules. They form when a
positively charged hydrogen atom in one covalently bonded molecules is
attracted to a negatively charged area of another covalently bonded
molecule. In water, the positive pole around a hydrogen atom forms a
hydrogen bond to the negative pole around the oxygen atom of another
water molecule.

List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from
hydrogen bonding.
1.Solvent
2.Heat capacity
3.Cohesion
4.Surface tension
5.Adhesion

Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the transport of water
against gravity in plants.

Explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion
upon freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
N/A

Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
N/A

Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually
transferred from one molecule to another.
H2O = H+ + OH-

Explain the basis for the pH scale.
The pH scale compresses the range of H+ an OH- concentrations by
employing a common mathematical device: logarithms
Examples
1. Science as a process- The dissociation of water
2. Evolution- Waters hydrogen bonding
3. Relationship of Structure to Function- Surface tension allowing “walking on
water”
4. Interdependence in Nature- Humans are made up of 70% to 95% of water
5. Science, Technology, and Society- Chemistry, pH scale, Acid
Chapter 4

Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of
bonds carbon will form.
Carbon has a total of six electrons, with two in the first electron shell and
four in the second shell. Having four valence electrons in a shell that holds
eight, carbon has little tendency to gain or lose electrons and form ionic
bonds; it would have to donate or accept four electrons to do so. Instead, a
carbon atom completes its valence shell by sharing electrons with other
atoms in four covalent bonds. Each carbon atom thus acts as an
intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in up to four
directions. This to travel is one factor of carbon’s versatility that makes
large, complex molecules possible.

Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation
contributes to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
The skeleton vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arrange in
closed rings. Some carbon skeletons have double bonds, which vary in
number and location. Such variation in carbon skeletons is one important
source of the molecular complexity and diversity that characterize living
matter. In addition, atoms of other elements can be bonded to the skeletons
at available sites.

Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of
organic molecules in which they occur.
1.Hydroxly Group (-OH)
2.Carbonyly Group (=CO)
3.Carboxyl Group (-COOH)
4.Amino Group (-NH2)
5.Sulfhydryl Group (-SH)
6.Phosphate Group (H3PO4)
Examples
1. Science as a process- The balance of chemicals
2. Evolution- How things are not destroyed, but just rearranged
3. Relationship of Structure to Function- Carbons is very versatile
4. Interdependence in Nature- Nothing can be destroyed or made up
5. Science, Technology, Society- Organic Chemistry, Atom, People
Chapter 5

List the four major classes of biomolecules.
1.Carbohydrates
2.Lipids
3.Proteins
4.Nucleic Acid

Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers.
When a bond forms between two monomers, each monomer contributes
part of the water molecule that is lost; one molecule prvides a hydroxyl,
while the other provides hydrogen. To make a polymer, this condensation
reaction is repeated over and over as each monomer is added to the chain.
The cell must expand energy to carry out these condensation reactions,
and the process occur only with the help of enzymes, specialized proteins
that speed up chemical reactions in cells. Polymers are dissembled to
monomers by hydrolysis, a process that essentially the reverse of
Condensation.

Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how they
are classified.
Carbohydrates include sugars and their polymers.
Monosaccharides- They generally have molecular formulars that
are some multiple of CH2O
Disaccharide- Double sugars, consists of two monosaccharides
joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between
two monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides- They are polymers in which a few hundreds to a
few thousands monosacchharides are linked together.

Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed.
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides. For example,
maltose is a disaccharide formed by linking two molecules of glucose.

Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
Some polysaccharides are strong material, hydrolyzed as needed to
provide sugar for cells. Other polysaccharides serve as building material
for structures protecting the cell or the whole organism

Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules.
They have little or no affinity for water. The hydrophobic behavior of
lipids is based on their molecular structure. Although they may have some
polar bonds associated with oxygen, lipids consist mostly of hydrocarbon.
Three important families of lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological
importance of the three important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and
steroids.
Fats- Are large molecules, but they are not polymers. A fat is constructed
from 2 kinds of smaller molecules; glycerol and fatty acids.
Phospholipds- Are structurally related to fats, but they have only 2 fatty
acids rather than three.
Steriods- Are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four
interconnected rings.

Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes
of macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of this group.
Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most cells, and
they are used for structural support, storage, transport of other substances,
signaling from one part of the organism against foreign substance.

List and recognize four major components of an amino acid.
1.Hydrogen Atom
2.Carboxly Group
3.Amino Group
4.Asymmetric Carbon

Explain what determines protein conformation.
The complex architecture of a protein, we can recognize three
superimposed levels of structure, known as primary, secondary, and
tertiary structure. A fourth level, quaternary structure, occurs when a
protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains.

Define primary structure
Is it’s unique sequence of amino acids.

Describe the two types of secondary protein structure
N/A

Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein
structure.
N/A

Describe quaternary protein structure.
Is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these
polypeptide subunits.

Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
A process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation,
there by becoming biologically inactive. Denaturation occurs under
extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature.

Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other major
groups of macromolecules.
A biological molecule that allows organisms to reproduce, polymers
composed of monomers called nucleotides joined by covalent bonds
between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next
nucleotide.

Summarize the functions of nucleic acids.
N/A

List the major components of a nucleotide.
1.Pyrimidine
2.Purines

Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine.
Pyrimidine- Is characterized by a six-membered ring made up of carbon
and nitrogen atoms.
Purines- Are larger, with the six-membered ring fused to a five-membered
ring.

List the functions of nucleotides.
N/A

Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
The DNA molecule is usually double-stranded, with the sugar-phosphate
backbone of the polynucleotides on the outside of the helix. In the interior
are pairs of nitrogenous bases, holding the two strands together by
hydrogen bonds.
Example
1. Science as a process- The different types of structurs
2. Evolution- The DNA
3. Relationship of Structure to Function- The Double Helix
4. Interdependence in Nature- Biomolecules
5. Science, Technology, Society- Organic biology, RNA, DNA
Chapter 6

Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of
cellular metabolism.
Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules
to simpler compounds and anabolic pathways consume energy to build
complicated molecules form simpler ones.

Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, and potential energy is energy that
matter possesses because of its location or structure.

Explain, in your own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
The First law of thermodynamics mainly is that energy cannot be created
or destroyed it is just always there, and the Second law explains that the
energy just changes form (change in entropy).

Describe the function of ATP in the cell.
ATP is the cell’s energy shuttle; it powers cellular work by coupling
exergonic to endergonic reactions.

List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of macromolecules
of which it belongs.
N/A

Explain how ATP performs cellular work.
ATP drives endergonic reactions by transfer of the phosphate group to
specific reactants, making them more reactive. Therefore, cells can carry
out work, such as movement and anabolism.

Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.
….the specificity of an enzyme is attributed to a compatible fit between
the shape of its active site and the shape of the substance.

Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic cycle
of an enzyme.
Induced fit brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that
enhance their ability to work on the substrate and catalyze the chemical
reaction. The catalytic cycle of an enzyme starts by the substrate binding
to the active site to form an enzyme –substrate complex. In most cases, the
substrate is held in the active site by weak interactions, such as hydrogen
bonds and ionic bonds. Side chains (R groups) of a few of the amino acids
that make up the active site catalyze the conversion of substrate to a
product, and the product departs from the active site. The enzyme is then
free to take another substrate molecule into its active site.

Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled
reaction.
The enzyme binds to its substrate. While enzyme and substrate are joined,
the catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the product of
the reaction.

Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental
conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators.
Temperature is one environmental factor important in the activity of an
enzyme. Up to a point, the velocity of an enzymatic reaction increases
with increasing temperature. Cofactors are ions or molecules for some
enzymes to function properly. Inhibitors reduce enzyme function and
because allosteric regulators attach to an enzyme by weak bonds, the
activity of the enzyme changes in response to fluctuating concentrations of
the regulators.

Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity.
Allosteric activation is the binding of an activator to an allosteric site
which stabilizes the conformation that has a functional active site.
Cooperativity is when an enzyme has two or more subunits and there is an
interaction with a substrate molecule which triggers a favorable
conformational change in all other subunits of the enzyme.
Examples
1. Science as a process- Metabolism
2. Evolution- Energy
3. Relationship of Structure to Function- Fats
4. Interdependence in Nature- Lipids
5. Science, Technology, Society- Physics, Hydrolysis, Enzymes