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LECTURE 2
For the Botany Subject, “Plant Systematic” Section,
for Pharmaceutical Department students of the 2nd Year of Study
Theme:
“DIVISION ANGIOSPERMS. MORPHOLOGY, ANATOMY AND
CHEMOSYSTEMATIC FEATURES OF MONOCOT AND DICOT’ CLASSES
REPRESENTATIVES. CLASS DICOTS. FAMILIES POLYGONACEAE,
BRASSICACEAE, FABACEAE, APIACEAE, ROSACEAE MEMBERS AND
THEIR USAGE IN MEDICINE AND PHARMACY”
Lecture Plan:
1. Magnoliophyta phylogeny
2. Angiosperms advantages
3. Dicots and Monocots comparison
4. Dicots. Class Magnoliopsida. Subclass Magnoliidae Schizandraceae family
5. Dicots. Class Magnoliopsida. Subclass Magnoliidae Lauraceae family
6. Ranunculaceae (Buttercup) Family
7. Papaveraceae (Poppy Family)
8. Subclass Caryophylidae. Polygonaceae. Buckwheat or Knotweed family
9. Subclass Dilleniidae. Brassicaceae, Cruciferae (mustard family or cabbage
family)
10.Ericaceae (the heath family)
11.Fabaceae, Leguminosae family (the Pea family)
12.1 The Fabaceae subfamilies
12.Apiaceae, Umbelliferae (Carrot family, Parsley family)
13.Rosaceae (Rose) Family
14.1 Main Rosaceae subfamilies comparison
1.Angiosperms definition and characteristics
Angiosperms are flowering plants.
Angiosperms are the biggest group in the plant kingdom. They have roots that
hold the plant in place and take in needed minerals and water. They have leaves that
are the major food makes for the plant. They have stems that hold the plants up and
move the nutrients and water about the plant with the vascular tissue which also
serves as a support system, allowing these plants to oppose the force of gravity.
2. Magnoliophyta phylogeny
The Magnoliophyta is the largest plant group on Earth. It contains more than
260,000 described species. See table.
3. Angiosperms advantages
HETEROSPORY - they all produce two kinds of spores - large Megaspore or
ovule - the "female" spore, - and a small microspore or pollen grain - the "male"
spore. Heterospory is great for seed plants because pollen doesn't need water and is
considered as a male gametophyte. The gametophytes of seed plants are microscopic
and completely dependent on the large, free living sporophytes.
Angiosperms also produce SEEDS which is composed of three parts:
Integument - the tough outer shell which protects the Embryo - the future plant and
Endosperm/Cotyledon - food supply for the embryo. Seed're relatively cheap in that
they're not huge structures and don't require a long time to produce. Seeds permit a
small but multicellular sporophyte to remain dormant until conditions are favorable
for continued growth.
While dormant, the young plant (embryo) is protected by a seed coat and
surrounded by a food supply. This allows seeds to resist desiccation or drowning,
mechanical damage, and in some cases predation. Angiosperms the primary food
source for animals and provides oxygen for us to breathe. They provide lumber for
buildings and other objects, fibers for clothes, are the basis for many drugs.
In English a member of either group may be called a "dicotyledon" (plural
"dicotyledons") and "monocotyledon" (plural "monocotyledons"), or abbreviated, as
"dicot" (plural "dicots") and "monocot" (plural "monocots"). These names derive
from the fact that the dicots usually have two cotyledons (embryonic leaves) within
each seed, while the monocots usually have only one. From a diagnostic point of
view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor reliable character,
so other features are involved too.
LECTURE 3
For the Botany Subject, “Plant Systematic” Section,
for Pharmaceutical Department students of the 2nd Year of Study
Theme: “MORPHOLOGY, ANATOMY AND CHEMOSYSTEMATIC FEATURES
OF FLOWERING PLANTS FROM SOLANACEAE, LAMIACEAE,
ASTERACEAE FAMILIES”
LECTURER: Dr. Victoria Rodinkova, PhD., Associate Prof.
Lecture plan:
1. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Lamiales, Family Lamiaceae (Mint Family)
2. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Solanales, Family Solanaceae (Potato family)
3. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Solanales, Family Scropulariaceae (Figwort,
foxglove or snapdragon family)
4. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Asterales. General characteristic
5. Asteraceae (Compositae, The aster or sunflower family)
5.1 Asteraceae Flowers types
5.2 Asteraceae inflorescences types
1. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Lamiales, Family Lamiaceae (Mint
Family)
Lamiaceae, or the Mint family, is a family of plants in about 210 genera and
some 3,500 species. The plants of this family are widely distributed on all continents.
Mostly they are present in the Mediterranean area. The plants are frequently aromatic
in all parts and include many widely used culinary herbs, such as basil, mint,
rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, thyme, lavender, and perilla. Some are
shrubs, but rarely trees or vines. Many members of the family are widely cultivated,
owing not only to their aromatic qualities but also their ease of cultivation: these
plants are among the easiest plants to propagate by stem cuttings. The leaves contain
aromatic essential oils and emerge oppositely, each pair at right angles to the
previous one (called decussate) or whorled. The stems are square in cross section.
The herbaceous parts of these plants have hairs. The flowers are bilaterally
symmetrical with 5 united petals, 5 united sepals. They are usually bisexual and
verticillastrate (a flower cluster that looks like a whorl of flowers but actually
consists of two crowded clusters). Gynoecium has two pistils, the nectariferous disk
is located at the gynoecium base. The original family name is Labiatae, so given
because the flowers typically have petals fused into an upper lip and a lower lip.
Upper lip 2-lobed and lower 3-lobed, rarely upper lip entire and lower 4-lobed, also
rarely limb (4- or) 5-lobed; tube hairy annulate inside. Stamens epipetalous, 4 or 2,
free, rarely filaments connate, sometimes one staminodial; anther 1- or 2-celled,
usually dehiscing longitudinally; disc persistent. Ovary superior, 2-celled and each
cell 2-ovuled and style subterminal, or ovary 4-parted and each lobe 1-ovuled and
style gynobasic (from bases of ovary lobes) with 2-cleft apex. Fruit usually 4 dry
nutlets. Seeds with or without endosperm.
2. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Solanales, Family Solanaceae (Potato
family)
The Solanaceae or Potato family are perennial herbs, shrubs, or trees
comprising about 85 genera and 2,800 species that are frequently lianous or creeping,
many of which are edible. Mostly they concentrate in Central and Southern America
and Australia. It is an important source of food, spice, and medicine. However,
Solanaceae species are often rich in alkaloidal glucosides (some have both edible and
toxic parts) that can range in their toxicity to humans and animals from mildly
irritating to fatal in small quantities.
The leaves are alternate, usually simple, and lack stipules, often with a hairy or
clammy surface. Flowers are typically conical or funnelform with five petals, usually
fused. They are bisexual and actinomorphic or only slightly zygomorphic. The
perianth and androecium whorls generally are isomerous and usually are 5- or
sometimes 4- or 6-merous. The calyx is synsepalous, ranging from tubular to deeply
cleft. The corolla is sympetalous and ranges from forms with a short tube and rather
long, reflexed lobes to forms with a long tube and short lobes. The stamens are
distinct, alternating with the lobes of the corolla, the stamens are usually present in
multiples of four (most commonly four or eight) and adnate to the corolla tube or
perigynous zone. The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2 carpels, a
single style, and a superior ovary with 2 or rarely more locules by false partitioning,
each with nearly always numerous axile ovules. A nectary disk is generally present
around the base of the ovary. The fruit is a berry as in the case of the tomato, or a
dehiscent (breaks open upon drying, or dehiscing, releasing the seeds) capsule as in
the case of Datura. The seeds are usually round and flat, being 2-4 millimeters in
diameter.
3. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Solanales, Family Scropulariaceae (Figwort,
foxglove or snapdragon family)
The Scrophulariaceae are mostly herbs or sometimes small shrubs comprising
about 190 genera and 4,000 predominately temperate species, including many which
are partial root parasites and a few that are without chlorophyll and are wholly
parasitic. The leaves are alternate, opposite, or sometimes whorled, and are simple to
pinnately dissected; stipules are absent. The flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic,
and sometimes have brightly colored and conspicuous associated bracts. The calyx is
commonly deeply 4-5 lobed or cleft. The corolla is sympetalous, usually 4-5-lobed,
sometimes 2-lipped, and sometimes forms a nectary spur or sac. The androecium
consists of 2 or 5 stamens or more commonly of 4 didynamous stamens adnate to the
corolla tube or perigynous zone, alternate with the lobes. The gynoecium consists of a
single compound pistil of 2 carpels, a single style, and a superior, sometimes
asymmetric ovary with 2 sometimes unequal locules, each containing numerous axile
ovules. There is usually a unilateral or annular, frequently lobed nectary disk at the
base of the ovary. The fruit type is usually a capsule.
4. Class Magnoliopsida, Order Asterales. General characteristic
The Asterales are an order of dicotyledonous flowerin plants which
include the composite family Asteraceae (sunflowers, daisies, thistles etc.) and its
related families.
The order is cosmopolitic, and includes mostly herbaceous species,
although a small number of trees (Lobelia) and shrubs is also present.
The Asterales can be characterized on the morphological and molecular
level. Synapomorphies include the oligosaccharide inulin as the nutrients
storage, and the stamens are usually aggregated densely around the style or even
are fused into a tube around it. The last property is probably associated with the
plunger (or secondary) pollination, which is common among the families of the
order.
The Asterales include about eleven families, the largest of which is
Asteraceae with about 25,000 species, and Campanulaceae with about 2,000
species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species. The two
large families are cosmopolitic with center of mass in the northern hemisphere,
and the smaller ones are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or
sometimes South America. The Asteraceae include some species grown for food,
e. g. sunflower (Helianthus annuus) or chicory (Cichorium). Many spices and
medicinal herbs are also present.
5. Asteraceae (Compositae, The aster or sunflower family)
The Asteraceae or Compositae is one of the four largest families, having about
1200 genera and 25,000 species growing in open habitats rather than deep woods,
often as native vegetation and garden ornamentals. These are mostly annual, rarely perennial herbaceous plants. It occurs throughout the world, but has its greatest
diversity in the semi-arid tropics. In tropics they are vines, stemed or leaved
succulents, shrubs and even small trees for 10-15 m of height. It is not abundant in
tropical rain forests. Most of its members are shrubs or semi-shrubs, but most of our
species are herbaceous. There are a few trees in the family. It is an economically
important family, but more for weeds and garden plants than as a source of food. The
best known food product in this part of the world is lettuce; artichokes, both green
and Jerusalem, are also members of this family.
The Asteraceae, or Composite family, is one of the easiest to recognize. The
inflorescence of the Asteraceae is so distinctive that the family was recognized as a
distinct group. This consists of several small flowers, termed florets, that are crowded
together and sessile on a receptacle. The technical term for this kind of inflorescence
is a capitulum. Flowers of the Asteraceae either lack a calyx or, in most cases, the
calyx is so highly modified it is given a different name, the pappus. Basal perianth
whorl is modified to form a highly variable series, positioned at the base of the
corolla. It may consist of capillary hairs (i.e., hair-like or capillary appendages) that
may be plumose (i.e., have yet finer hairs on them, like down), bristles, awns, or
hyaline scales. Or, it may be completely absent. The corolla can either be
actinomorphic or zygomorphic and, in contrast to most flowering plant families, both
types can occur on the same plant and within the same inflorescence.
With few exceptions, the androecium of the Asteraceae is a single unit formed
via connation of the five stamens at the anthers (synantherous) with the filaments free
from one another but attached to the corolla (epipetalous). In almost all species, the
anthers are fused together, forming a ring around the style. This tube of anthers is an
important part the pollen presentation mechanism of composites. The anthers (and
pollen) mature before the stigmas and shed their pollen into the cylinder formed by
the anthers. This pollen presentation mechanism is a means of preventing selfpollination and it is an adaptation for cross-pollination. In the base of pistil the
nectarines disk is situated. The most stable floral element is the gynoecium which is
bicarpellate, syncarpous, uniloculate, and uniovulate.
The ovary is inferior and encloses a single seed. Fruit is pseudo-monocarpy
achene or, to use a term often applied to achenes of the Asteraceae, cypsela, seed
with adaptation for flight. The fruit is consists of fat oil and proteins. Many plants
have filaments with silicon on their leaves. Leaves are simple, sometimes composed,
have different types of leaf blade. Many plants have milky cells, pitch courses, inulin.
Plants in the family Asteraceae typically have one or both of two kinds of
florets. The outer perimeter of a flower head like that of a sunflower is composed of
florets possessing a long strap-like petal, termed a ligule; these are the ray florets.
The inner portion of the flower head (or disc) is composed of small flowers with
tubular corollas; these are the disc florets. They have a radially symmetric tubular
corolla with five short lobes. These florets are called disk florets because they form
the central disk of the capitulum in typical daisies. The disk florets are usually
surrounded by an outer ring of ray florets. These have bilaterally symmetric tubular
corollas. Ray florets are usually pistillate or sterile, and have three or fewer teeth on
the extended portion of the corolla (i.e., the ray). The best known weedy composite,
the common dandelion, has a third kind of floret, a ligulate floret. These resemble ray
florets in having a bilaterally symmetric corolla, but ligulate florets are bisexual and
have five apical teeth at the end of the strap. Thistles have yet another kind of floret,
bilabiate florets. Bilabiate florets, like ray and disk florets, have a bilaterally
symmetric tubular corolla, but they are not so extremely bilaterally symmetric, and
have 34 lobes on the lower (long) lip and 1-2 lobes on the upper (shorter) lip. Like
ligulate florets, bilabiate florets are usually bisexual. Apart from their differences in
corolla shape and sexuality, all types of floret are very similar. The composition of
asteraceous inflorescences varies from all ray flowers (like dandelions, genus
Taraxacum) to all disc flowers (like pineapple weeds). Individual florets are attached
to a common receptacle and, in some cases, each floret is associated by a small bract
(chaff) and the receptacle is 'chaffy'.
5.2 Asteraceae inflorescences types
1. Ligulate - ligulate florets only, no disc florets
2. Radiate - capitulum composed of two types of florets enclosed by the involucre
3. Discoid - disc florets only, no ray florets
12.1 The Fabaceae subfamilies
The legumous plants are traditionally classified into three subfamilies, on the
basis of flower morphology (specifically, petal shape):
Mimosoideae (Mimosaceae): actinomorph flower, the petals are small, are
fused and so tiny as not to be easily seen, are frequently globose or spicate and the
stamens are the most showy part of the flower. All are woody.
Faboideae or Papilionoideae (Fabaceae sensu strictu or Papilionaceae): One
petal is large and has a crease in it, the two adjacent petals are on the sides, and the
two bottom petals are joined together at the bottom (the standard, wings, and keel),
forming a boat-like structure. The wings overlapping the outside of the keel petals;
there are ten stamens, nearly always joined together, either all ten together or nine
joined and one separate
Caesalpinioideae (Caesalpiniaceae): The flowers are zygomorphic, but are
very variable, e.g. closely resembling Faboideae flowers in Cercis, while symmetrical
with five equal petals in Bauhinia. The stamens are usually few in number, and the
five petals are differentiated to some extent into an upper standard, two lateral wings,
and two lower keel petals, which overlap the outside of the wings. The
Caesalpinioideae are mainly tropical woody plants.
14.Rosaceae (Rose) Family
For the Botany Subject, “Plant Systematic” Section,
for Pharmaceutical Department students of the 2nd Year of Study
Theme:
“MORPHOLOGY, ANATOMY AND CHEMOSYSTEMATIC FEATURES OF
FLOWERING PLANTS FROM ALLIACEAE AND POACEAE FAMILIES
AND SOME OTHER HERBS WIDESPREAD IN UKRAINE AND
WORLDWIDE”
LECTURER: Dr. Victoria Rodinkova, PhD., Associate Prof.
Lecture plan:
1. Liliopsida Class (Monocots) general characteristic
2. Alliaceae Family
3. Order Polaes
4. Family Poaceae
5. Medical plants of Ukraine (temperate zone), tropics and subtropics (by
list)
6.
1. Liliopsida Class (Monocots) general characteristic
The Monocotyledonae comprise 60 000 or one-quarter of all flowering plant
species. They include some of the largest and most familiar groups of plants,
including lilies, orchids, agaves, palms, and grasses. Though often described as
having a stereotype morphology, the monocots are actually quite diverse, ranging
from tiny duckweeds to large palms and climbing vines. The largest monocot
family is the Orchidaceae (orchids), with very complex (and striking) flowers, for
highly specific insect pollination. The second largest and perhaps more notable
family, the Poaceae or Gramineae (true grasses), have evolved in another
direction, becoming highly specialized for wind pollination.
Economically, monocots are perhaps the most important organisms on
earth. Our four most important foods - corn, rice, wheat, and barley - all come
from monocots. Bamboo and palms are a primary source of building materials
and fibers in many tropical countries. Sugar cane, pineapples, dates, bananas,
and many of our familiar tropical fruits also come from monocots.
The subclass Liliidae consists of 15 families and nearly 8,000 species, of
cosmopolitan distribution. More than 4/5ths of the species belong to just two
families, the Orchidaceae and Liliaceae. Nearly half of the species belong to the
Liliaceae, a heterogeneous family that is often segregated into dozens of smaller
and possibly unrelated families. The Liliidae characteristically, although not
always, has showy 3-merous flowers, with the sepals all petaloid, and they have
extensively exploited insect pollination with well-developed nectaries.
Recent molecular phylogenetic studies indicate that the Liliidae has at
least 3 distinct lineages: Liliales, including Liliaceae sensu stricto, Smilacaceae,
and a number of segregate families of Liliaceae sensu lato; Asparagales,
including many of the epigynous Liliaceae segregate families, Iridaceae, and
Orchidaceae; and Dioscoreales, including Dioscoreaceae and Burmanniaceae.
The Liliidae are likely sister to the morphologically most derived subclass
Commelinidae (including Zingiberidae).
Monocots are predominantly herbaceous, with less than 10% of the
species being more or less woody-stemmed - a reflection of a typical vascular
cambium in the class. Woody monocots, in contrast to woody dicots, usually
have an unbranched stem with a terminal crown of large leaves. The aquatic
habitat has been extensively utilized by different lineages of monocots. Vessel
elements often lacking or sometimes restricted to specific organs. Vascular
bundles of the stem are usually scattered or borne in 2 or more rings. The
mature root system is completely adventitious. A single cotyledon is present or
the embryo sometimes undifferentiated. Leaves are mostly parallel or parallelderived veined.
One of the most noticeable traits is that a monocot's flower is trimerous,
with the flower parts in threes or in multiples of three: a monocot's flower could
have three, six, or nine petals. Floral parts are borne in sets of 4 is seldom, and
almost never 5. Pollen is uniaperturate or uniaperturate-derived.
2. Alliaceae: The Onion Family
Alliaceae is a family of herbaceous perennial flowering plants. They are
monocots, part of order Asparagales and have bulbs. Their closest relatives are
the New World plants in the family Themidaceae, as well as the Hyacinthaceae
and the Amaryllidaceae. The flowers are bisexual and regular; they are
characteristically in an umbel at the top of a stalk. The leaves are all produced
from the base of the plant.
The onion family is represented on the African continent by the
ornamental genus Tulbaghia. The genus Ipheion is familiar in western Europe,
and should be tried more in North America in zones 7 and 8, and even in zones 5
and 6.
The APG II system of 2003 recognises the family and places it in the order
Asparagales in the clade monocots. The most important genus is Allium, which
includes several important food plants, including onions (Allium cepa), chives (A.
schoenoprasum), garlic (A. sativum and A. scordoprasum), and leeks (A. porrum).
Besides the familiar onions of the garden, other members of this family include
many wild species of the genus Allium.
Order Poales
is a cosmopolitan order of monocotyledonous flowering plants. The
order includes the very large family of grasses (Family Poaceae) and other allied
families, and consists mostly of herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs or lianas.
Flowers are typically small, enclosed by bracts, and arranged in an inflorescence
(except in the genus, Mayaca, with solitary terminal flowers). The flowers are
wind pollinated; seeds usually contain starch.
According to the most modern perceptions, Poales consists of eighteen
families with about 850 genera and over 20,000 species. The largest families in
the order are Poaceae (12,000 species), Cyperaceae (5,000 species), Bromeliaceae
(1,400 species), and Eriocaulaceae (1,150 species). By far, the most economically
important family is the Poaceae, which includes barley, maize, millet, rice, and
wheat.
Today Poales are considered one of the more successful groups of plants
on the planet. The ecological and economical importance of many species
exceeds that of most other herbs. Estimates place the origin of the Poales in
South America nearly 115 million years ago. The earliest known fossils include
pollen and fruits that have been dated to the late Cretaceous (Bremer, 2000).
3. Poaceae Family
The family Poaceae, in the Class Liliopsida of the flowering plants, is also
known as Gramineae. Plants of this family are usually called grasses. There are
about 600 genera and between 9,000-10,000 species of grasses. Plant
communities dominated by Poaceae are called grasslands; it is estimated that
grasslands comprise 20% of the vegetation cover of the earth. This family is the
most important of all plant families to human economies: it includes the staple
food grains grown around the world, lawn and forage grasses, and bamboo,
widely used for construction throughout Asia. The term "grass" is also applied
to many grass-like plants not in the Poaceae, leading to plants of the Poaceae
often being called "true grasses".
Poaceae have hollow stems called culms, plugged at intervals called nodes.
Leaves are alternate, distichous (in one plane) or rarely spiral, parallel-veined
and arise at the nodes. Each leaf is differentiated into a lower sheath hugging the
stem for a distance and a blade with margin usually entire. The leaf blades of
many grasses are hardened with silica phytoliths, which helps discourage
grazing animals. In some grasses (such as sword grass) this makes the grass
blades sharp enough to cut human skin. A membranous appendage or ring of
hairs, called the ligule, lies at the junction between sheath and blade, preventing
water or insects to penetrate into the sheath.
Grass blades grow at the base of the blade and not from growing tips. This
location of the grass growing point near the ground allows it to be grazed
regularly without damage to the growing point.
Flowers of Poaceae are peculiar. They are typically arranged in a terminal
spike made of many smaller spikelets, each spikelet having more than one flower.
The flowers are usually hermaphroditic (maize, monoecious, is an exception)
and pollination is always anemophylic. The perianth is reduced. Each spikelet is
usually protected by a couple of bracts called the glumes and each single flower
is held into other two bracts called the lemma (the external one) and the palea
(the internal). The fruit of Poaceae is a caryopsis.
Grass plants also spread out from a parent plant. Growth habit describes
the type of shoot growth present in particular grass plants and is directly related
to their ability to spread out from the parent plant and ultimately form a clonal
colony. There are three general classifications of growth habit present in
grasses; bunch-type, stoloniferous, and rhizomatous.
Agricultural grasses grown for seed for human food production are called
cereals. Cereals constitute the major source of food energy for humans and
perhaps the major source of protein, and include rice in southern and eastern
Asia, maize in Central and South America, and wheat and barley in Europe,
northern Asia and the Americas. Some other grasses are of major importance
for foliage production. Sugarcane is the major source of sugar production. Many
other grasses are grown for forage and fodder for animal food
4. Grass fibre can be used for making paper, and for biofuel production.
5. Medical plants of Ukraine (temperate zone), tropics and subtropics
Urtica dioica, Stinging nettle
It is a herbaceous perennial, growing to 1-2 m tall in the summer and dying
down to the ground in winter. It has very distinctively yellow, widely spreading
roots. The soft green leaves are 3-15 cm long, with a strongly serrated margin, a
cordate base and an acuminate tip.
Flowers: Reddish-brown to greenish-white; in dangling clusters at junction
of stems and leaves.Leaves: dark green, triangular and coarsely toothed. Small
green seed clusters after flower blooms - late summer.
Both the leaves and the stems are covered with brittle, hollow, silky hairs
that were thought to contain formic acid as a defence against grazing animals;
but recent research has revealed the cause of the sting to be from three
chemicals - a histamine to irritate the skin, acetylcholine to bring on a burning
sensation and serotonin to encourage the other two chemicals (Elliott 1997).
Bare skin brushing up against a stinging nettle plant will break the delicate
defensive hairs and release the trio of chemicals, usually resulting in a
temporary and painful skin rash similar to poison ivy, though the nettle's rash
and duration are much weaker. It is possible, however, to evade the sting by just
touching the middle of the leaf blade. The young leaves are edible and make a
very good pot-herb.
The whole plant is antiasthmatic, antidandruff, astringent, depurative,
diuretic, galactogogue, haemostatic, hypoglycaemic and a stimulating tonic. An
infusion of the plant is very valuable in stemming internal bleeding, it is also
used to treat anaemia, atherosclerosis, excessive menstruation, haemorrhoids,
arthritis, rheumatism and skin complaints, especially eczema. Externally, the
plant is used to treat skin complaints, arthritic pain, gout, sciatica, neuralgia,
haemorrhoids,
hair
problems.
The fresh leaves of nettles have been rubbed or beaten onto the skin in the
treatment of rheumatism etc. This practice, called urtification, causes intense
irritation to the skin as it is stung by the nettles. Leaves have vitamins A, B, C,
K. and are edible in salads.
Plantago major, Greater plantain
Perennial herbs growing to 0.12m by 0.1m . Roots fibrous, primarily
adventitious, caudex short Leaves basal, ovate to broadly ovate or broadly
elliptic, 3-40 cm long, till 15 cm long, 2-12 (-15) cm wide, 5-7-nerved, in rosette;
glabrous to sparsely pilose at least on veins, rarely moderately pilose, margins
usually with a few blunt teeth, base abruptly cuneate, petioles 2-18 cm long,.
Limb with a similar length to the petiole. Flowers in a spike at the top o a long
stalk. Very little corolla, about 3 mm wide, yellowish, with purple anthers when
young becoming, yellow at the maturity.
Spikes 2.5-25 cm long, glabrous to sparsely pilose, flowers relatively
crowded, bracts elliptic, 2.5-3 mm long, usually glabrous; sepals subequal,
distinct, ovate to suborbicular, 2-2.5 mm long, glabrous; corolla lobes spreading,
lanceolate, 1.2-1.6 mm long; ovary with 6-16 ovules. Capsules ellipsoid to
oblong-ellipsoid, (1.5-) 2-3 mm long, dehiscent at or slightly below middle. Seeds
6-16, dark brown, irregular, ca. 1 mm long" (Wagner et al., 1999; pp. 10511052). Common plantain is a safe and effective treatment for bleeding, it quickly
staunches blood flow and encourages the repair of damaged tissue. The leaves
are astringent, demulcent, deobstruent, depurative, diuretic, expectorant,
haemostatic and refrigerant. Internally, they are used in the treatment of a wide
range of complaints including diarrhoea, gastritis, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel
syndrome, haemorrhage, haemorrhoids, cystitis, bronchitis, catarrh, sinusitis,
asthma and hay fever. They are used externally in treating skin inflammations,
malignant ulcers, cuts, stings etc. The heated leaves are used as a wet dressing
for wounds, swellings.The seeds are used in the treatment of parasitic worms.
Plantain seeds contain up to 30% mucilage which swells up in the gut, acting as
a bulk laxative and soothing irritated membranes. Sometimes the seed husks are
used without the seeds. A distilled water made from the plant makes an excellent
eye lotion. Young leaves - raw or cooked. Many people blanch the leaves in
boiling water before using them in salads in order to make them more tender.
Seed - raw or cooked is very rich in vitamin B1. The whole seeds can be boiled
and used like sago.
Hypericum perforatum, St John's wort
Rhizomatous perennial herbs; stems 1 to several, erect, becoming somewhat
woody toward base, 5-10 dm long, black-dotted. Leaves linear to elliptic or
oblanceolate, primary ones 10-30 mm long, 3-16 mm wide, usually black-dotted.
Flowers in paniculate cymes; sepals connate at base, the lobes lanceolate, 3-5
mm long, glandular punctate; petals obovate, 5-8 mm long, black-dotted along
margins; stamens numerous, in 3 clusters; styles 3 (4). Capsules ovoid, 7-8 mm
long. Seeds dark brown, cylindrical, ca. 1 mm long, the surface pitted"
(Wagner et al., 1999; p. 546). The herb is used internally as an abortifacient and
externally as an anti-inflammatory, astringent, and antiseptic. The aerial parts
of the plant can be cut and dried for later use in the form of herbal tea, which
has long been enjoyed both for its pleasant (though somewhat bitter) taste and
for its medicinal properties.
In modern medicine, standardized Hypericum extract (obtained from H.
perforatum) is commonly used as a treatment for depression and anxiety
disorders. In homeopathy, The flowers and stems of St John's wort have also
been used to produce red and yellow dye.
St John's wort is today most widely known as a herbal treatment for
depression. In most countries, standardized extracts are available over the
counter – usually in tablet or capsule form, and also in teabags and tinctures.
Grass is used for for astringent, against inflammation, tonic, at a
pneumorrhagia, tussis, liver diseases.
Althaea officinalis, Marshmallow
Perennial growing to 1.2m by 0.75m true with soft grey foliage and stems
with heart-shaped leaves, finely toothed and pure white five-petalled flowers
(Malvales, Malvaceae) - root and some parts above ground are used for
expectorating and enveloping. Marshmallow is a very useful household
medicinal herb. Marshmallow root and — to a lesser extent — marshmallow
leaf both contain significant percentages of mucilage, a natural gummy
substance that does not dissolve in water. Like other mucilage-containing
substances, marshmallow swells up and becomes slick when it is exposed to
fluids. The resulting slippery material coats the linings of the mouth, throat, and
stomach to relieve irritation and control coughing associated with respiratory or
stomach conditions. For example, marshmallow has been used to treat sore
throats and to alleviate heartburn. Marshmallow may also have mild antiinfective and immune-boosting properties. Topically, marshmallow is used to
soothe and soften irritated skin. A commercial ointment that contains up to 10%
of powdered marshmallow leaf or root may be applied to chapped skin or insect
bites, boils and abscesses. Its soothing demulcent properties make it very
effective in treating the alimentary canal, the urinary and the respiratory
organs. The root counters excess stomach acid, peptic ulceration and gastritis. It
is also applied externally to bruises, sprains, aching muscles, splinters etc. The
whole plant, but especially the root, is antitussive, demulcent, diuretic, highly
emollient, slightly laxative and odontalgic. An infusion of the leaves is used to
treat cystitis and frequent urination. The root is best harvested in the autumn,
preferably from 2 year old plants. The dried root is used as a toothbrush or is
chewed by teething children. It has a mechanical affect on the gums whilst also
helping to ease the pain. The root is also used as a cosmetic, helping to soften the
skin. A fibre from the stem and roots is used in paper-making. A glue can be
made from the root. An oil from the seed is used in making paints and varnishes.
Linum usitatissimum, flax, Flaxseed
Annual growing to 0.7m by 0.2m, erect, sometimes to 120 cm tall, with
slender stems. The leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 2-4 cm long and
3 mm broad. The flowers are pure pale blue, 1.5-2.5 cm diameter, with five
petals. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5-9 mm diameter, containing several
glossy brown seeds shaped like an apple pip, 4-7 mm long. In addition to the
plant itself, flax may refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant. Linseeds or the
oil from the seed is main effects being as a laxative and expectorant that soothes
irritated tissues, controls coughing and relieves pain. The seed is analgesic,
demulcent, emollient, laxative, pectoral and resolvent. The crushed seed makes a
very useful poultice in the treatment of ulceration, abscesses and deep-seated
inflammations. An infusion of the seed contains a good deal of mucilage and is a
valuable domestic remedy for coughs, colds and inflammation of the urinary
organs. If the seed is bruised and then eaten straight away, it will swell
considerably in the digestive tract and stimulate peristalsis and so is used in the
treatment of chronic constipation. The oil in the seed contains 4% L-glutamic
acid, which is used to treat mental deficiencies in adults. It also has soothing and
lubricating properties, and is used in medicines to soothe tonsillitis, sore throats,
coughs, colds, constipation, gravel and stones. The bark and the leaves are used
in the treatment of gonorrhoea. The flowers are cardiotonic and nervine. The
plant has a long history of folk use in the treatment of cancer. It has been found
to contain various anticancer agents. The seed contains 30 - 40% oil, which
comprises mainly linoleic and linolenic acids. The seed also contains cyanogenic
glycosides (prussic acid). In small quantities these glycosides stimulate
respiration and improve digestion, but in excess can cause respiratory failure
and death. The seed is used in breads and cereals, it can also be sprouted and
used in salads. The roasted seed is said to be a coffee substitute. A herbal tea can
be brewed from the seed. They take fiber from the stem
Valeriana officinalis, Valerian
Valerian is a hardy perennial flowering plant, with heads of sweetly scented
pink or white flowers. This "sweet" smell is quite overpowering when the flower
is placed into a vase. The flowers are in bloom from June to September.
Native to Europe and parts of Asia, Valerian has been introduced into
North America.
Valerian is a well-known and frequently used medicinal herb that has a
long and proven history of efficacy. It is noted especially for its effect as a
tranquilliser and nervine, particularly for those people suffering from nervous
overstrain. Valerian root has been shown to encourage sleep, improve sleep
quality and reduce blood pressure. It is also used internally in the treatment of
painful menstruation, cramps, hypertension, irritable bowel syndrome etc. It
should not be prescribed for patients with liver problems. Externally, it is used
to treat eczema, ulcers and minor injuries. The root is antispasmodic,
carminative, diuretic, hypnotic, powerfully nervine, sedative and stimulant. The
active ingredients are called valepotriates, research has confirmed that these
have a calming effect on agitated people, but are also a stimulant in cases of
fatigue. The roots of 2 year old plants are harvested in the autumn once the
leaves have died down and are used fresh or dried. Use with caution, see the
notes above on toxicity.
Quercus robur, Pedunculate Oak
It is a large deciduous tree 25–35 m tall (exceptionally to 40 m), with lobed and
nearly sessile (very short-stalked) leaves 7–14 cm long. Flowering takes place in mid
spring, and their fruit, called acorns, ripen by autumn of the same year. The acorns
are 2–2.5 cm long, pedunculate (having a peduncle or acorn-stalk, 3–7 cm long) with
one to four acorns on each peduncle. It is a long-lived tree, with a large
widespreading head of rugged branches. While it may naturally live to an age of a
few centuries, many of the oldest trees are pollarded or coppiced, both pruning
techniques that extend the tree's potential lifespan, if not its health. A specimen of
notable longevity is one in Stelmužė, Lithuania which is believed to be approximately
1,500 years old, possibly making it the oldest oak in Europe; another specimen,
called the Kongeegen (Kings Oak), estimated to be about 1,200 years old, grows in
Jaegerspris, Denmark. Yet another can be found in Sweden, Kvilleken. It is over
1,000 years old and 14 meters around. Of maiden (not pollarded) specimens, one of
the oldest is the great oak of Ivenack, Germany. Tree-ring research of this tree and
other oaks nearby gives an estimated age of 700 to 800 years old. A close relative is
the Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea), which shares much of its range. Pedunculate Oak
is distinguished from this species by its leaves having only a very short stalk 3–8 mm
long, and by its pendunculate acorns. The oak tree has a long history of medicinal
use. It is anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, decongestant, haemostatic and
tonic. The bark is the part of the plant that is most commonly used, though other parts
such as the galls, seeds and seed cups are also sometimes used. A decoction of the
bark is useful in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, intermittent fevers,
haemorrhages etc. Externally, it is used to bathe wounds, skin eruptions, sweaty feet,
piles etc. It is also used as a vaginal douche for genital inflammations and discharge,
and also as a wash for throat and mouth infections. The bark is harvested from
branches 5 - 12 years old, and is dried for later use. Any galls produced on the tree
are strongly astringent and can be used in the treatment of haemorrhages, chronic
diarrhoea,
dysentery
etc.
The plant is used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are
'Despondency', 'Despair, but never ceasing effort‘. A homeopathic remedy is made
from the bark. It is used in the treatment of disorders of the spleen and gall bladder.
Tilia cordata, ‘Greenspire’Littleleaf linden
Native to Europe, littleleaf linden has been widely planted in the U. S. as an
ornamental shade tree because of its attractive foliage, dense, low-branched,
pyramidal to ovate form and tolerance for urban conditions. Ornamental features
include fragrant pale yellow flowers in late spring, small nutlets with attached leafy
wings (to 3.5” long) and ovate, shiny dark green leaves (to 3” long) with acuminate
tips, serrate margins and cordate bases. This is a medium to large deciduous tree,
typically growing to 50-70’ (less frequently to 100’) tall. Fragrant, creamy yellow
flowers in drooping cymes appear in June. When a tree is in full bloom, bees often
visit in such abundant numbers that humming can be heard many feet from the tree.
Flowers give way to nutlets that are attached to narrow bract-like wings (top 3.5”
long). Nutlets ripen in late summer. Flowers are used against high temperature.
Betula pendula,Silver birch
A decidious tree growing to 20m by 10m at a fast rate. It is hardy to zone 2.
It is in flower in April, and the seeds ripen from July to August. The scented
flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both
sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by Wind. Antiinflammatory, cholagogue, diaphoretic. The bark is diuretic and laxative. An oil
obtained from the inner bark is astringent and is used in the treatment of
various skin afflictions, especially eczema and psoriasis. The bark is usually
obtained from trees that have been felled for timber and can be distilled at any
time of the year. The inner bark is bitter and astringent, it is used in treating
intermittent fevers. The vernal sap is diuretic. The buds are balsamic. The
young shoots and leaves secrete a resinous substance which has acid properties,
when combined with alkalis it is a tonic laxative. The leaves are
anticholesterolemic and diuretic. They also contain phytosides, which are
effective germicides. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of gout,
dropsy and rheumatism, and is recommended as a reliable solvent of kidney
stones. The young leaves and leaf buds are harvested in the spring and dried for
later use. A decoction of the leaves and bark is used for bathing skin eruptions.
Moxa is made from the yellow fungous excrescences of the wood, which
sometimes swell out of the fissures.
Aesculus hippocastanum, Horse chestnut
Distinguished by its large palmate leaves with seven fingers that fatten
toward the tips, the horse chestnut bears masses of ¾ inch flowers in upright
spikes about 8 inches high. They are among the most beautiful of tree flowers
and are favored by bees. The petals are white, blotched with red at the base.
Native to Northern Greece and Albania, the tree must have been favored for
shade, The prickly green fruit contains a shiny chestnut-colored nut, up to 2
inches across, which small children like to feel. In England, the game of conkers
is played by threading the nut on a string and swinging it at your opponent’s
nut. A record is kept of all the nuts that your nut has broken and a victorious
conker can achieve very large scores because all the previous triumphs of a
vanquished conker pass to its credit. Packages of horse chestnuts with an
instruction card entitled “Don’t go bonkers, Play conkers,” proved to be
exportable to South Africa. A. hippocastanum is now rare on campus, but an
unusual grafted tree at 1017 Vernier. The seeds, fruits, cork, leaves and flowers
are used for decreasing of the blood stickiness, make small blood vessels more
strong, decrease the blood pressure, the cholesterol and lecithine in a blood.
Hippophae rhamnoides, Sea buckthorn
A decidious grey shrub growing to 6m by 2.5m at a medium rate. It is
thorny and bears showy bright orange fruit on female plants.. It is in flower in
April, and the seeds ripen from September to October. The flowers are dioecious
(but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants
must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by wind. The plant not is
self-fertile. It can fix Nitrogen. The fruit is very freely borne along the stems and
is about 6 - 8mm in diameter. The fruit becomes less acid after a frost or if
cooked. The fruit is ripe from late September and usually hangs on the plants all
winter if not eaten by the birds. Sea buckthorn has an extensive root system and
suckers vigorously and so has been used in soil conservation schemes, especially
on sandy soils. The fibrous and suckering root system acts to bind the sand.
The branches and leaves contain 4 - 5% tannin. They are astringent and
vermifuge. The tender branches and leaves contain bio-active substances which
are used to produce an oil that is quite distinct from the oil produced from the
fruit. This oil is used as an ointment for treating burns. A high-quality medicinal
oil is made from the fruit and used in the treatment of cardiac disorders, it is
also said to be particularly effective when applied to the skin to heal burns,
eczema and radiation injury, and is taken internally in the treatment of stomach
and intestinal diseases. The fruit is astringent and used as a tonic. The freshlypressed juice is used in the treatment of colds, febrile conditions, exhaustion etc.
The fruit is a very rich source of vitamins and minerals, especially in vitamins A,
C and E, flavanoids and other bio-active compounds. It is also a fairly good
source of essential fatty acids, which is fairly unusual for a fruit. It is being
investigated as a food that is capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and
also as a means of halting or reversing the growth of cancers. The juice is also a
component of many vitamin-rich medicaments and cosmetic preparations such
as face-creams and toothpastes. A decoction of the fruit has been used as a wash
to treat skin irritation and eruptions. It’s used against ache, cancer (cork).
Eucalyptus globulus
(Myrtales, Myrtaceae) - using for an essential oil, leaves are boiled for
ingalations, for treatment of recently infected wounds, inflammations of female
generative organs
Fifteen of the more than 500 species of Eucalyptus in the world: 1. E.
erythrocorys, 2. E. lehmanii, 3. E. caesia-grandum, 4. E. ficifolia, 5. E.
cosmophylla, 6. E. globulus, 7. E. eremophylla, 8. E. citriodora, 9. E. sideroxylon,
10. E. polyanthemos, 11. E. camaldulensis, 12. E. campanulata, 13. E. robusta,
14. E. nicholii, and 15. E. spathulata. The vast majority of Eucalyptus species are
native to Australia and Tasmania, and a few species extend north to New
Guinea, the Philippine Islands, Timor and Java.
The bisexual spectacular flower of Eucalyptus macrocarpa showing the cap
(operculum) that separates to expose a mass of red stamens which surround the
female pistil. The majority of flowering plant species have fewer than 20
stamens.
Citrus limon, lemon
A lemon tree can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet), but they are usually smaller.
The branches are thorny, and form an open crown. The leaves are green, shiny and
elliptical-acuminate. Flowers are white on the outside with a violet streaked interior.
On a lemon tree, flowers and ripe fruits can be found at the same time. Lemon fruit
are ovoid with a pointed tip at the end. When ripe, they have a bright yellow skin
with a paler yellow segmented interior.
Lemon juice is widely known as a diuretic, antiscorbutic, astringent, and
febrifuge. In Italy, the sweetened juice is given to relieve gingivitis, stomatitis, and
inflammation of the tongue. Lemon juice in hot water has been widely advocated as a
daily laxative and preventive of the common cold, but daily doses have been found to
erode the enamel of the teeth. Prolonged use will reduce the teeth to the level of the
gums. Lemon juice and honey, or lemon juice with salt or ginger, is taken when
needed as a cold remedy. It was the juice of the Mediterranean sweet lemon, not the
lime, that was carried aboard British sailing ships of the 18th Century to prevent
scurvy, though the sailors became known as "limeys". Oil expressed from lemon
seeds is employed medicinally. The root decoction is taken as a treatment for fever in
Cuba; for gonorrhea in West Africa. An infusion of the bark or of the peel of the fruit
is given to relieve colic.
Сinchona succirubra, cinchona (tree). (Subclass Lamiidae. Rubiaceae) family.
A lemon tree can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet), but they are usually smaller.
The branches are thorny, and form an open crown. The leaves are green, shiny
and elliptical-acuminate. Flowers are white on the outside with a violet streaked
interior. On a lemon tree, flowers and ripe fruits can be found at the same time.
Lemon fruit are ovoid with a pointed tip at the end. When ripe, they have a
bright yellow skin with a paler yellow segmented interior.
Lemon juice is widely known as a diuretic, antiscorbutic, astringent, and
febrifuge. In Italy, the sweetened juice is given to relieve gingivitis, stomatitis,
and inflammation of the tongue. Lemon juice in hot water has been widely
advocated as a daily laxative and preventive of the common cold, but daily doses
have been found to erode the enamel of the teeth. Prolonged use will reduce the
teeth to the level of the gums. Lemon juice and honey, or lemon juice with salt or
ginger, is taken when needed as a cold remedy. It was the juice of the
Mediterranean sweet lemon, not the lime, that was carried aboard British sailing
ships of the 18th Century to prevent scurvy, though the sailors became known as
"limeys". Oil expressed from lemon seeds is employed medicinally. The root
decoction is taken as a treatment for fever in Cuba; for gonorrhea in West
Africa. An infusion of the bark or of the peel of the fruit is given to relieve colic.
Schizandra Chinensis
is a member of the Shizandraceae Family, is a large woody bush with pink
flowers. Sometimes reaching 25 feet tall, it is native to Northern China and
adjacent regions of Russia and Korea. Each autumn it produces spikes of tiny
red berries that are the source of one of Chinese medicine's premier herbal
tonics. Schizandra's Chinese name “Wu Wei Zi” translates as “five-flavored
herb”: the schizandra berry has sweet, sour, hot, salty and bitter tastes.
Schizandra seems to have been made into a famous tonic consumed by Chinese
royalty and by Daoist masters. The herb is said to contain the ”three treasures”
1) Sexual enhancer – helps to produce increased sexual fluids and sexual
endurance and overall strength.
2) Beauty enhancement – the herb has been used for centuries a youth
preserver making skin supple, moist and radiant.
3) Memory improvement – used in China for centuries as a memory
enhancement and promoting a generalized feeling of well being.
It’s still used in Chinese medicine today as a longevity tonic said to increase
energy throughout the body, including the brain, muscles, liver, kidneys, glands
and nerves. It is considered to be especially effective in liver disease. It is also
prescribed to help with digestive, lung and kidney problems, to improve vision
(widely used in Russia), rejuvenate skin; and as an aphrodisiac. Today
researches calling Schizandra an “adaptogenic” herb, helping the body increase
its resistance to a host of stresses while improving the regulation of its
physiological processes. It helps in cases of chronic fatigue and associated
depression. It has been shown effective against hepatitis virus and bacterial lung
disorders acts as an expectorant; helps with coughs, wheezing. It's a potent antioxidant wich consists vitamin E and a support to the immune system. It's effect
on the cardiovascular system is particularly notable, dilating blood vessels,
increasing circulation also in penis; normalizing blood pressure and blood
sugar. It supports stomach and intestines, helps in cases of diarrhea, nausea,
indigestion. Studies have shown that extracts of schizandra are stimulating to
the central nervous system and are cholinergic. Numerous reports describe on
schizandra's ability to quicken reflexes, increase work efficiency, control anger
and combat neurasthenias (headaches, insomnia, dizziness, palpitations).
Laurus nobilis
Laurus is a genus of evergreen trees belonging to the Laurel family, Lauraceae.
The genus includes two species: Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco, syn. L. canariensis
Webb & Berth. known as Azores Laurel is native to the laurisilva forests of the
Azores and Madeira Islands, and also locally in Morocco.
Laurus nobilis L., known commonly as Bay Laurel, True Laurel, Sweet Bay,
Grecian Laurel, or simply Laurel, is the source of the spice Bay leaf. It was also the
source of the Laurel wreath of ancient Greece. It is woody tree or shrub with smooth
brownish periderm. Leaves are ovate or wide lanceolate, with short leafstalks, have a
waved leaf edge, are bright and odorous. Fruit is the black-blue drupe (stone-fruit). It
is distributed across the Mediterranean region from Spain to Greece.
Persea Americana
Persea is a genus of about 150 species of evergreen trees belonging to the
laurel family, Lauraceae. The best-known member of the genus is the Avocado,
P. americana, widely cultivated in subtropical regions for its large, edible fruit.
They are medium-size trees, 15-30 m tall at maturity, evergreen, shedding many
leaves in early spring. Injury to branches causes a secretion of dulcitol, a white,
powdery sugar, at scars. Roots are coarse and greedy and will raise pavement
with age. Grafted plants normally produce fruit within one to two years
compared to 8 - 20 years for seedlings. The leaves are simple, lanceolate to broad
lanceolate, dark green with paler veins, varying with species from 5-30 cm long
and 2-12 cm broad, and arranged spirally or alternately on the stems. They
normally remain on the tree for 2 to 3 years. The flowers are in short terminal
panicles of 200 - 300 small yellow-green blooms, with six small greenish-yellow
perianth segments 3-6 mm long, nine stamens and an ovary with a single
embryo. Each panicle will produce only one to three fruits. The flowers are
perfect. Avocado flowers appear in January - March before the first seasonal
growth.
The fruit is an oval or pear-shaped drupe, with a fleshy outer covering
surrounding the single seed; size is very variable between the species, from 1-1.5
cm in e.g. P. borbonia and P. indica, up to 10-20 cm in P. americana.
Rhamnus catartica, Buckthorn
Buckthorn is a shrub from 6 to 15 feet in height. Its branches are alternate
or nearly opposite, spreading, straight, round, smooth, hard, and rigid, each
terminating in a strong spine, after the first year. The leaves are 1 to 2 inches
long, about two-thirds as wide, deciduous, bright-green, smooth, simple, and
ribbed; the young ones downy; the earlier ones in tufts from the flowering buds;
the rest opposite, on the young branches. Petioles downy. Stipules linear.
Flowers yellowish-green, on the last year's branches, and numerous; the fertile
ones with narrow petals, rudiments of stamens, and a deeply 4-cleft style; the
barren ones with an abortive ovary and broader petals. The berries are
globular, bluish-black, nauseous, with 4 cells, and as many elliptical, planoconvex seeds.
Buckthorn berries (Rhamni baccae) are powerfully cathartic; 20 of the
recent berries cause brisk, watery purging, with nausea, dryness of the throat,
thirst, and tormina. These effects are partly removed by giving the juice
(Rhamni succus) in the form of syrup, and which formerly enjoyed much
reputation as a hydragogue in gout, rheumatism, and dropsy; at present it is
seldom employed in practice, but is occasionally employed as an adjunct to other
cathartic and diuretic mixtures as a stimulant to the vegetative processes, for its
influence on the digestive tract, and in diseases of the nose, throat, and lungs.
Frangula alnus. Glossy buckthorn, alder buckthorn
Frangula alnus commonly known as glossy buckthorn, is a shrub that can
grow to seven meters and is sometimes considered a tree. Brown-green branches
have elongate lenticels, and may be slightly pubescent. Thin glossy leaves are
obovate or elliptic with entire or obscurely crenulate margins. They are glabrous
or slightly pubescent beneath and are usually alternate. Yellowish-green five
parted perfect flowers are born in sessile umbels. The flower is very small and
inconspicuous bell-shaped, appearing in leaf axils in late spring after the leaves.
The fruit is a small round drupe at first red but later turning black, juicy flesh,
ripens in late summer.
Medically used in folklore. Vertebrate poisons: mammals, used for
charcoal.
Viburnum opulus, Guelder rose
A decidious shrub growing to 5m by 5m at a medium rate. Foliage medium to
dark green, opposite, ovate, trilobed, and deeply incised, with acute apices and a
truncate base concave glands are often present on the upper petiole, giving it a warty
appearance upon close inspection overall shape resembles a trilobed. Maple leaf,
while fall color is often green then abscised, but may have tinges of purple or red.
Flowers white, in late May and early June, as flat-topped inflorescences, composed of
an outer ring of white sterile flowers that open first, followed by the inner disc of
creamy fertile flowers. Green globular immature fruits of Summer mature to
pendulous clusters of bright cherry-red fruits in late August, persistent and attractive
throughout Autumn, then shriveling and fading in Winter, and remaining into the
following. Spring as droopy raisins (if not consumed by wildlife, primarily the birds).
Bark is used as haemostatic for urine and haemorrhoidal bleeding, as astringent and
sedative remedy. Fruits are used in atherosclerosis, high blood-pressure, nervous
irritation, vessel spasm and cancer treatment. Fruits consists of vitamins, have
diaphoretic and restorative properties. Flowers are used for cough and cold treatment.
Sambucus nigra, Elderberry
Sambucus nigra is a species of elder native to most of Europe, northwest
Africa and southwest Asia. It is most commonly called just Elder or Elderberry,
but also Black Elder or Common Elder. It grows in a variety of conditions
including both wet and dry soils, primarily in sunny locations. It is a deciduous
shrub growing to 4-6 m (rarely to 10 m) tall. The leaves are arranged in opposite
pairs, 10-30 cm long, pinnate with five to seven (rarely nine) leaflets, the leaflets
5-12 cm long and 3-5 cm broad, with a serrated margin. The flowers are borne
in large corymbs 10-25 cm diameter in mid summer, the individual flowers
white, 5-6 mm diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a dark purple to black
berry 3-5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in the late autumn; they
are an important food for many fruit-eating birds. The berries are edible after
cooking, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous, containing toxic calcium
oxalate crystals. The inner bark is diuretic, a strong purgative and in large doses
emetic. It is used in the treatment of constipation and arthritic conditions. An
emollient ointment is made from the green inner bark. Large amounts of
vitamin C, flavenoids and rutin, which are known to improve immune function
account for the use of the juice and flower tea as a cold remedy and tannins
account for many of the other medical uses. The flowers are used in tea to treat
fevers and stimulate perspiration, sooth headache and to treat colds, flue,
dropsy, rheumatism, consumption, urinary infections and many other
conditions. Fruits from related species that are red, unripe fruits, leaves and
other parts of the plant may be dangerously purgative and should not be
ingested.