Download Bandwagon:

PERSUASIVE DEVICES
Bandwagon:
Bandwagon is one of the most common techniques in both wartime and
peacetime and plays an important part in modern advertising. Bandwagon is also
one of the seven main propaganda techniques identified by the Institute for
Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Bandwagon is an appeal to the subject to follow
the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon
propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the
winning side, because more people have joined it. The subject is meant to
believe that since so many people have joined, that victory is inevitable and
defeat impossible. Since the average person always wants to be on the winning
side, he or she is compelled to join in. However, in modern propaganda,
bandwagon has taken a new twist. The subject is to be convinced by the
propaganda that since everyone else is doing it, they will be left out if they do not.
This is, effectively, the opposite of the other type of bandwagon, but usually
provokes the same results. Subjects of bandwagon are compelled to join in
because everyone else is doing so as well. When confronted with bandwagon
propaganda, we should weigh the pros and cons of joining in independently from
the amount of people who have already joined, and, as with most types of
propaganda, we should seek more information.
Loaded words: This technique involves using words with strong positive or negative
connotations, or associations. Name-calling is an example of the use of loaded words. So
is any use of words that are charged with emotion. For example: "No really intelligent
voter would support his candidacy."
Testimonials:
Testimonials are another of the seven main forms of propaganda identified by the
Institute for Propaganda Analysis. Testimonials are quotations or endorsements,
in or out of context, which attempt to connect a famous or respectable person
with a product or item. Testimonials are very closely connected to the transfer
technique, in that an attempt is made to connect an agreeable person to another
item. Testimonials are often used in advertising and political campaigns. When
coming across testimonials, the subject should consider the merits of the item or
proposal independently of the person of organization giving the testimonial.
Name Calling:
Name calling occurs often in politics and wartime scenarios, but very seldom in
advertising. It is another of the seven main techniques designated by the Institute
for Propaganda Analysis. It is the use of derogatory language or words that carry
a negative connotation when describing an enemy. The propaganda attempts to
arouse prejudice among the public by labeling the target something that the
public dislikes. Often, name calling is employed using sarcasm and ridicule, and
shows up often in political cartoons or writings. When examining name calling
propaganda, we should attempt to separate our feelings about the name and our
feelings about the actual idea or proposal.
Plain Folks:
The plain folks propaganda technique was another of the seven main techniques
identified by the IPA, or Institute for Propaganda Analysis. The plain folks device
is an attempt by the propagandist to convince the public that his views reflect
those of the common person and that they are also working for the benefit of the
common person. The propagandist will often attempt to use the accent of a
specific audience as well as using specific idioms or jokes. Also, the
propagandist, especially during speeches, may attempt to increase the illusion
through imperfect pronunciation, stuttering, and a more limited vocabulary. Errors
such as these help add to the impression of sincerity and spontaneity. This
technique is usually most effective when used with glittering generalities, in an
attempt to convince the public that the propagandist views about highly valued
ideas are similar to their own and therefore more valid. When confronted by this
type of propaganda, the subject should consider the proposals and ideas
separately from the personality of the presenter.
Snob appeal: This technique involves making a claim that one should act or think in a
certain way because of the high social status associated with the action or thought. For
example: "Felson’s Furs – the feeling of luxury, for those who can afford the very best."
MISUSE OF STATISTICS: Some examples: Average results are reported,
but not the amount of variation around the averages. A percent or fraction is
presented, but not the sample size as in "9 out of 10 dentists recommend...".
Absolute and proportional quantities are mixed as in "3,400 more robberies
occurred in our town last year, whereas other cities hand an increase of less
than one percent". Graphs are used that, by chopping off part of the scale or
using unusual units or no scale, distort the appearance of the result. Results are
reported with misleading precision. For example, representing 13 out of 19
students as 68.42105 percent.
Transfer:
Transfer is another of the seven main propaganda terms first used by the
Institute for Propaganda Analysis in 1938. Transfer is often used in politics and
during wartime. It is an attempt to make the subject view a certain item in the
same way as they view another item, to link the two in the subjects mind.
Although this technique is often used to transfer negative feelings for one object
to another, it can also be used in positive ways. By linking an item to something
the subject respects or enjoys, positive feelings can be generated for it. However,
in politics, transfer is most often used to transfer blame or bad feelings from one
politician to another of his friends or party members, or even to the party itself.
When confronted with propaganda using the transfer technique, we should
question the merits or problems of the proposal or idea independently of
convictions about other objects or proposals.
LOGICAL FALLACIES
Logical Fallacies
A Logical Fallacy is an argument that sounds logical, but, in reality, the premises
given for the conclusion do not provide proper support for the argument. An
example: birds fly in the sky; airplanes fly in the sky; therefore, airplanes are birds.
In addition to other propaganda techniques, logical fallacies are often used by those
who seek to convince or misinform – including hate-mongers. Here are some of the
logical fallacies you are likely to see in propaganda campaigns:
Appeal to Fear
The "appeal to fear" is the notion that if some course of action is or is not pursued,
terrible consequences will occur. The more common name for this fallacy is "scare
tactics."
If we do not pass immigration reform, pretty soon we
will go bankrupt because we will have spent all of our
children's money on support for illegal aliens.
Personal Attack – (Ad Hominen)
"Ad hominen" is a Latin phrase meaning "against the man."
This fallacy should not be confused with a legitimate challenge to authority. When
someone makes a claim based on their own authority, it's perfectly logical to call that
authority into question. The "ad hominem" fallacy comes into play when that
person's argument or viewpoint is discounted because of character flaws that have
nothing to do with the arguments at issue.
How can people believe the theory of evolution when it
is a well-known fact that Darwin cheated on his wife?
Personal Attack (Argumentum Ad Hominem, literally, "argument toward the man." Also called "Poisoning the Well"):
Attacking or praising the people who make an argument, rather than discussing the argument itself. This practice is
fallacious because the personal character of an individual is logically irrelevant to the truth or falseness of the argument
itself. The statement "2+2=4" is true regardless if is stated by criminals, congressmen, or pastors. There are two
subcategories:
(1) Abusive: To argue that proposals, assertions, or arguments must be false or dangerous because they originate with
atheists, Christians, Communists, capitalists, the John Birch Society, Catholics, anti-Catholics, racists, anti-racists,
feminists, misogynists (or any other group) is fallacious. This persuasion comes from irrational psychological transference
rather than from an appeal to evidence or logic concerning the issue at hand. This is similar to the genetic fallacy, and only
an anti-intellectual would argue otherwise.
(2) Circumstantial: To argue that an opponent should accept an argument because of circumstances in his or her life. If
one's adversary is a clergyman, suggesting that he should accept a particular argument because not to do so would be
incompatible with the scriptures is such a fallacy. To argue that, because the reader is a Republican or Democrat, she must
vote for a specific measure is likewise a circumstantial fallacy. The opponent's special circumstances have no control over
the truth of a specific contention. This is also similar to the genetic fallacy in some ways. If you are a college student who
wants to learn rational thought, you simply must avoid circumstantial fallacies.
False Dilemma
The "false dilemma" fallacy presents an issue as if there were only two possible
solutions. False dilemmas should be distinguished from true dilemmas. Sometimes,
there really are only two choices: everything in the world is either a dog or a nondog. But everything isn't either a dog or a cat. In most, but not all, situations, there
are middle grounds or other options that make it irresponsible to force a choice
between two alternatives.
The purpose behind campus speech codes is to combat
racism. Either you support our efforts to end hate
speech, or you are a racist.
(This argument ignores the fact that although you may
disagree with speech codes, you support other ways to
fight racism.)
False Analogy
Definition:
In an analogy, two objects (or events), A and B are shown to be similar. Then it is
argued that since A has property P, so also B must have property P. An analogy
fails when the two objects, A and B, are different in a way which affects whether
they both have property P.
Examples:
i.
ii.
Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make
them work, so must employees.
Government is like business, so just as business must be sensitive primarily to the
bottom line, so also must government. (But the objectives of government and
business are completely different, so probably they will have to meet different
criteria.)
Proof:
Identify the two objects or events being compared and the property which both
are said to possess. Show that the two objects are different in a way which will
affect whether they both have that property.
Slippery Slope
The "slippery slope" fallacy is an attempt to divert attention away from the question
at issue by arguing that a certain decision, if made, would set in motion a series of
increasingly severe consequences. These consequences are then presented as the
consequences of the question at hand, rather than as the consequences of a series of
future decisions that may or may not be made.
If we start to ban extremely violent and sexually
explicit speech, we will open the doors to a flood of
censorship that will never stop. First, we will ban
images of violent sexuality, Penthouse and Playboy will
be next, then James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, Chaucer,
Byron, and Shakespeare. Before long, we will be living
in a fascist state where nobody has any rights at all.
Non Sequitur:
something that just does not follow. For example, "Tens of thousands of Americans have
seen lights in the night sky which they could not identify. The existence of life on other
planets is fast becoming certainty !"
Another example: arguing at length that your religion is of great help to many people.
Then, concluding that the teachings of your religion are undoubtably true.
Or: "Bill lives in a large building, so his apartment must be large."
A non sequitur is any argument that does not follow from the previous statements.
Usually what happened is that the writer leaped from A to B and then jumped to D,
leaving out step C of an argument she thought through in her head, but did not put down
on paper. A common example would be an argument along these lines: "Giving up our
nuclear arsenal in the 1980's weakened the United States' military. Giving up nuclear
weaponry also weakened China in the 1990s. For this reason, it is wrong to try to outlaw
pistols and rifles in the United States today." There's obviously a step or two missing
here.
False Authority
The fallacy of "appeal to authority" occurs when an argument is asserted as true on
the sole grounds of its endorsement by an authority figure or a perceived authority
figure. Simply using an expert testimony is not a fallacy; it is good reasoning.
However, such appeals become fallacious: 1) when the authority figure does not
have any expertise in the area under discussion 2) when opposite opinions of other
authorities are suppressed or 3) when the testimony of the authority figure is given
disproportionate weight in relation to other considerations.
Michael Jordan says "Eat Wheaties cereal so you can be
like me."
(Michael Jordan is an excellent authority figure for
advice on basketball, but a much more limited one for
advice on nutrition.)