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REVIEW SHEET
FC 70 FINAL EXAM
Individual IDs:
On the exam we will have to answer 3 out of 5. Make sure to include in your ID: basic
info about the person, the importance of their work, and the importance of them in the
course. Also let us know what the best sources are to learn about this person
1. Usman dan Fodio
 Died 1817
 scholar, reformer
 born in Hausa city state of Gobir (today in Nigeria)
 from Fulani tribe, disciple in Sufi order; so Fulanis pro-Sufi
 Leads CONSERVATIVE Reform movement – seek to establish Islam as
interpreted by the great Sunni scholars of the 9th and 10th century;
particularly the founders of the four Sunni schools of thought i.e. Hanafi,
Shafii, Maliki, Hanbali
 During his time, was tension between ulama and local rulers; b/c local rulers
tolerated syncretistic practices, such as belief in spirits, fetish worship; also b/c
local rulers had luxurious lifestyle. Belief that this syncretism compromises
monotheism
 And tension between merchants/nomads and rulers b/c of heavy taxation
 Dan Fodio: “Tolerating mixed practices at court was worse than disbelief.”; antisyncretism
 Dan Fodio persecuted by Sultan of Gobir; his followers forbidden from wearing
turbans, veils
 In 1804, Dan Fodio + followers make “hijrah” (migrate) to Gudu, leave Gobir
 Hijrah= Prophet’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622
 In Gudu, Dan Fodio establishes Sokoto Caliphate in Northern Nigeria
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What are Dan Fodio’s goals, goals of the Fulani Jihads?
Adhere to Sunni Maliki school of jurisprudence; taqlid (imitation), following their
precedent
Purify Islam; recover pristine vigorous faith; revivalist Sufi
battle against “pagan” practices
*Invoke doctrine of jihad against fellow Muslims, who are perceived as heretic or
lapsed; they do this to justify political rule; raise army and fight, jihad as
imperialistic ideology, perhaps influenced by seeing Western countries gain
power through imperialism at this time?
2. Muhammad Iqbal
Basic:
Muhammad Iqbal (1875-1938) was a Kashmiri Muslim poet, philosopher and politician
born in Sialkot, in the British Raj (now part of Pakistan since the 1947 Partition of India
which separated Pakistan and India.) It was his vision to create Pakistan, an independent
state for the Muslims of British India.. By combining an early Islamic education with
advanced degrees from Cambridge and Munich in philosophy and law, Iqbal was able to
address a society whose ulama generally preached Islam that did not adequately address
modern realities.
Importance/Relevance:
The Muslim community was divided over the question of Muslim participation in the
Indian independence movement. Like other Islamic revivalists, he believed that Muslims
must once again reassert their right to itjihad, to reinterpret and reapply Islam to changing
social conditions. This right belonged to all qualified Muslims and not just the ulama.
Convinced that the survival of Islam was dependent on this centrality of Islamic law,
Iqbal emphasized to his friend Muhamma Ali Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League
party and the founder of Pakistan, the need for a Muslim state or states in India. In 1930,
he reluctantly concluded that internal Hindu-Muslim communal harmony was impossible.
The threat of Hindu dominance in an independent India necessitated the establishment of
a separate region or states for the Muslims.
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Articulated a response to modernity with supreme eloquence--what his fellow
Muslims were vaguely beginning to feel but unable to formulate
 Became the president of the Muslim League
Iqbal’s thought
Rejected the Sufi and idealist world-denying tendencies in Isam
Human beings should empower themselves in such a way that before writing the
human destiny, God should come before the human being and ask them what their wish is
Attacked by ulama but was not deterred
Life is not to be contemplated but to be passionately lived
“A kafir before his ideol with a wakeful heart, Is better than the religious man
asleep in the haram.”
“Suicide is preferable to imitation (of the West)
Indian muslim poet philosopher
Wanted to improve the character and life of Indian Muslims
Perceived Indian Muslims as a community but within India
3. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
 Muslim reformer in Turkey; died 1938
- IMITATIVE – attempts to imitate Western models; Islamic
institutions perceived as being “backward” and “outdated”
 fervent secularist
 tries to strengthen Turkey in order to fight the Western imperialists
 gets rid of Shariah, borrows Western judiciary systems
 restricts Islam to private sphere
 bans traditional hats
 no women can wear headscarves in public buildingsintroduces Latin alphabet
 Western calendar
 Attaturk= the model of an Islamic secularist
founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey. Ataturk gained fame as a general
for the Ottoman Empire during World War I. After the defeat of the Ottomans and the
fall of the empire, he emerged as a leader of the national resistance movement. Ataturk
aimed to modernize and reform Turkey through progressive reforms in all areas of life.
Some of his most important changes included the abolition of the Caliphate and the
Sultanate, and the implementation of clothing laws designed to institutionalize European
dress.
4. Muhammad Ali Jinnah
 Jinnah (1876-1948) used Islam to mobilize support among the Muslims of India;
credited with creating Pakistan as a Muslim homeland
 IMITATIVE – attempts to imitate Western models
 Pakistan as “Muslim” nation
 Muslim in cultural terms not religious
 Anglophile
 called “The Great Infidel” by his detractors
 Pakistan as a democracy “western style”
 Jinnah’s “Pakistan” Demand
o Indian Muslims as a “minority” –
o An autonomous “state” within a larger union of India
o To be made up of the Muslim-majority provinces
o To include and protect the Hindu (& other) minorities in those provinces
in return for safeguards protecting rights of Muslims in Muslim-minority
provinces
5. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
 Created Wahhbism
 Born 1703 into line of scholars from the Hanbali school
 Opposed to any of the schools being taken as an absolute, unquestioned authority
 Purify Islam by returning to original principles of the Salaf (original followers of
Muhammad)
 Thought Sufism was heretical (e.g. veneration of saints)
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Lived 1703-92
drawn to Hanbalism, the strictest Sunni school of law.
al-Wahhab’s core belief was that the Muslim society of his day had lost its way
and was no longer any better than pre-Islamic Arabia, during the jahiliyya (period
of ignorance). The only correctly normative period in Islam was the time of
Muhammad and his community. After that, in the Wahhabi belief, everything had
to be re-evaluated strictly (incl. interpretations of the ulama and law schools
which were to be reviewed, based only on the Koran and the Hadith as the true
sources).
He believed that the community’s political weakness derived from its deviation
from Sirat al-Mustaqim (the straight path), and that this was clear in the
veneration of certain figures other than God.
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Thus, al-Wahhab led a militant reformist movement together with a local tribal
chief, Muhammad ibn Saud, against all Muslims not in line with their strict
beliefs. Participants in this movement called themselves Muwahhidun (“those
who proclaim Divine Unity,” or the true monotheists).
They destroyed Sufi shrines, sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina (incl. those of
the Muhammad and his companions), and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala (which
is a continual source of anger on the part of Shii Muslims toward the Wahhabi
movement).
Under al-Wahhab’s movement, religious and political power fused into one – a
fact established under al-Wahhab’s rule, together with Muhammad ibn Saud.
The legacy of Wahhabism can be found in Saudi Arabia and in the ideological
views of Muslims worldwide.
6. Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini
 Ayatullah Khomeini became Supreme Leader of Iran after the Iranian Revolution
of 1979, creating a theocratic government. Overthrew the monarchy headed by
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which favored more modern Western secular
ideals; while Shi’a clergy traditionally had a lot of power over the nation, the
Pahlavi monarchy banned traditional Islamic clothing, etc. Khomeini,
representing the conservative religious right, used the doctrine of velayat-i faqih
(rule by the jurisprudent) to justify his rise to power; in the absence of the 12th
imam, a religious scholar can rule over the people. In his political maneuvering,
he compared himself and the Shah to the struggle between good and evil/battle of
Karbala/martyrdom of Husayn- themes that really stuck out to the Shi’a
population. Khomeini’s success represents the power of Shi’a ideology over
Western modernization in Iran during that time/ use of religious doctrine to justify
taking complete political control of a nation.
 From 4/22 lecture: Reform and Revival, the Iranian Revolution, slides 25-29
7. Malcolm X
 Converts to the Nation of Islam and changes name from Malcolm Little
 His life story is in “The Autobiography of Malcolm X”
 Was anti-white and then broke from Nation of Islam to go on pilgrimage to
Mecca
o This challenges his racial stereotypes
 Founded Muslim Mosque, inc
 Assassinated in 1965
 Importance of work: leader and spokesman for black Muslims during civil rights
movement
 Importance in course: example of reformist movement in America
8. Muhammad Abduh
 1849-1905, Egypt
 Abduh attended Al Azhar University in Egypt, and then became Mufti of Egypt.
He believed that Muslims were ignorant about their own religion because the
religious authorities held too much power. He formed a secret society dedicated
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to fostering relationships between Muslims, Christians, and Jews, and he believed
that Muslims should have the same freedoms of will and thought that Europeans
enjoyed.
Abduh is a reformer in favor of adaptation and integration, although his
opponents believed he was merely imitative. Is philosophy is contradictory to the
conservative and “back to the fundamentals” thought preached by other reformers.
Abduh was extremely progressive and wanted Muslims to combine Medieval
Muslim thought with modern analysis to interpret the Quran appropriately for the
modern age.
the founder of Islamic Modernism.
He was exiled from Egypt in 1882 for six years, for his participation in the Urabi Revolt.
9. Aga Khan IV
 The 49th Imam of the Ismaili sect of Shia Islam, in particular the Nizaris
 Attained this position in 1957 at the death of his grandfather Aga Khan III,
through the process of nass (divinely inspired appointment), while still studying at
Harvard
 He mainly works through the Aga Khan Development Network
 He oversees spiritual and cultural life in the community along with investments in
industry and philanthropic projects
 His goals include the eradication of world poverty, more rights for women,
furthering Islamic culture, spreading education and greater social justice
 Shias believe that Ali and his descendants are the natural successors to
Muhammad as leader
 This leader, or Imam, is meant to give infallible interpretations of the Qur’an and
give guidance on both religious and civic matters.
 born 1936, still alive
10. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani
 died 1897
 reformer, activist
 called for internal reform to defend Islam, strengthen Muslim community, drive
out the West
 ADAPTATIONIST/INTEGRATIVE – integrates Western “foreign” models
within an “Islamic” framework
 Islam source of strength, Muslims must more faithfully observe it
 Rejects passivity, fatalism, otherworldliness of Sufism
 Rejects Western secular tendency to restrict religion to personal life or worship
 Beliefs:
 Islam comprehensive way of life, encompasses law and government and society
 **Calls for reopening of door of ijtihad, denounces stagnation in Islam
 Ijtihad= use of rational reasoning to interpret the Quran and hadith
 ulama backwards, no expertise to respond to modern concerns
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Al-Afghani (1838-1897) – the Father of Muslim Nationalism,
11. Sayyid Ahmad Khan
Basic:
Two men dominated the Islamic modernist movement in India—Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan
(1817-98), a contemporary of al-Afghani and Abduh, and Muhammad Iqbal (1875-1938.
After the “Mutiny” in 1857, the British took command and ended the era of Muslim
dominance in India., Sayyid Ahmad Khan rose.
Importance/Relavance:
He believed that the survival of the Muslim community required the bold reinterpretation
of Islam and the acceptance, not rejection, of the best in Western thought. That is, the
survival of Islam depended on the rejection of unquestioned acceptance (taqlid) of
medieval interpretations of Islam and the exercise of itjihad in order to produce fresh
interpretations of Islam that demonstrated its relevance and validity of modern life.
His strong affinity for the West, however, undermined his influence. Many of the ulama
and anticolonialists dismissed “Sir” Sayyid’s loyalism and reformism as capitulation to
the British.
While Ahmad Khan never produced the integrated curriculum to educate his version of
the new Muslim leader, he contributed greatly to the spirit of reform in the subcontinent.
He extended Islamic reform to include a rationalist reinterpretation of the Quran and the
reevaluation of the Prophetic traditions and the law. His modernist theories remained a
major alternative influence to the more traditional ulama.
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Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-98) attempted to enliven Muslim Indians by accepting
British rule and reinterpreting their understanding of Islam.
He advocated the use of ijtihad (analysis of subjects not in Koran, hadith, or ijma)
to freshly interpret Islam and show that it could be relevant and important in this
new modern reality.
in common with many revivalists, he believed it would be helpful that this also
involve a purification of Islamic doctrine from some incorrect teachings and
interpretations of the ulama.
founded a translation society (to make Western thought accessible) and founded
the Anglo-Muhammad Oriental College at Aligarh (renamed Aligarh Muslim
University), modeled on Cambridge University.
12. Sayyid Qutb
 leading intellectual of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in 1950’s and 60’s. in
reaction to Egyptian gov’t that favored Western customs over Egyptian values.
 Brotherhood’s main focus= correcting economic injustice by turning to religion,
Qur’an as the constitution.
 Supported the use of violence if violence is used against his group.
 Controversial interpretations of Qur’anic verses-stresses reading the text literallysupported rebellion against leaders who “fail to RULE by (the light of) what God
has revealed.”
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Executed, viewed as martyr of the brotherhood. Strong anti-western writings have
major influence on insurgent/terrorist groups… Hamas, Al Qaeda, etc. Example
of emergence of radical/violent Islamic ideology.
These ideas specifically have greatly influenced the anti-American stance of Al Qaeda
and the Islamic Jihad. Qutb was executed by Nasser’s government in 1966 after being
found out as the leader of a plot to assassinate the President and other leading Egyptian
politicians.
13. Amina Wadud Muhsin
She challenges the patriarchal interpretation of the Qur'an. She says that women in
general have suffered at the hands of male interpretations of religion. Finally women
must reclaim the Qur'an
The text basically says that there are just a few verses (one about divorce and one about
men taking care of women) that are used to justify men's superior standing in Islam. She
disagrees and says that even these few verses are taken out of context but the greater
message is even more important and says that women should be treated equally and with
respect.
 most important book, the Qur’an and Women.
 Along with Asra Numani, leads a mixed gender congregation in prayer;
controversial; first for the majority Sunni community.”
14. Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi
 1903-1979, Pakistan; lawyer
 Mawdudi was the founder of Jamiat al-Islamiya, the Islamic Party, the oldest
religious party in Pakistan. He believed that the entire world should become
Muslim, and said that he would not be afraid to use force to spread Islam
through the world.
 Mawdudi was and Islamist, and he believed that Islam was a political ideology.
His beliefs stand in contrast to people like Jinnah, who believed that Pakistan
should be a secular state (and who were not religious themselves). He is
important in this class because he was the leader of an important Pakistani
religio-political philosophy.
15. Shirin Ebadi
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Iran was heading towards the Western/Turkish secular nationalism in 60s & 70s
with Islam as a private not political matter
Shirin Ibadi was an Iranian Reformer
She grew up in Iran, studied law and became a judge
She was however demoted following the Iranian revolution when it was
determined women couldn’t be judges
She won a Nobel Peace prize in 2003 for her efforts for democracy and human
rights
Passage IDs:
On the exam we will have to answer 2 out of 2. Make sure to include in your ID: the
identification of the passage, the context of the passage within the text, and the context of
the passage within the course.
16. "There is no fall in the Quran..."
 Passage from “Muslim Women and Post-Patriarchial Islam” by Riffat
Hassan
 In this work, she argues that Islam as a religion has been used as an instrument of
oppression due to its patriarchal nature
 Historically, Quran and hadith have only been interpreted by Muslim men;
patriarchial
 Women’s “Islamic” rights have been violated by male-centered and maledominated societies
 This is a quote from Riffat Hassan’s essay “Muslim Women and Post-Patriarchal
Islam.” In this essay, Hassan is arguing that because God does not make woman
responsible for the fall of man in the Qur’an or other Islamic religious texts (along
with other equalities between the sexes), man and woman are equal. This passage
in particular is talking about how in the Qur’an there is no fall of man, so clearly
God, when writing the Qur’an, did not make woman responsible. However, the
passage states, because of the connection with the female responsibility for the
fall in Christian traditions, Muslim woman are often associated with the fall of
man regardless. Within the course, this is an example of how patriarchal Muslim
societies use false religious interpretation in order to subjugate women.
17. "Later, in an attempt..."
 This is a quote from Hanif Kureishi’s story “The Rainbow Sign.” This is a story
about a man who does not quite fit in either Britain or Pakistan as he is British to
the Pakistanis and a Paki to the Brits. This quotation in particular is the narrator
describing the Islamization of Pakistan under Bhutto around 1980. Prior to this
time, Pakistan was liberal and fun, but Bhutto eventually gave in to the Mullahs
and made the country of Pakistan synonymous with the religion of Islam. As the
story states after the passage: “Under the tyranny of the priesthood, with the
cooperation of the army, Pakistan would embody Islam in itself.” In the context
of the course, this is one example of a reform movement that went ‘back to
fundamentals’. Pakistan became a fundamentalist state ruled by the laws of Islam.
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This is a reference to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan’s ruler from 1971-1977.
Kureishi is telling the story of Pakistan’s transformation, from Western/secular, to
Islamic.
Bhutto was a secular socialist, but the political situation led him to increasingly
adopt Islamic measures in order to buttress his populism
Under Bhutto, Islam became central to Pakistani
The general passage relates more closely to issues faced by Muslim immigrants in
non-Muslim countries –
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Relation to broader themes:
Pakistan is home to diverse, shifting, and contending interpretations and uses of
Islam. Bhutto’s increasing use of Islam to “appease the mullahs and rouse the
dissatisfied masses” is only one of many uses in Pakistani history.
Bhutto’s use of Islam reveals a trend common to many Muslim and Islamic
countries. Dissatisfaction with previous rule, economic conditions, in this case,
the loss of East Pakistan (Bangladesh), the 1967 war etc. all are perceived as the
result of Muslims’ departure from the straight path; thus, in order to experience
success once again, Islam offers the solution = Islamic revival.
18. "Through these Dooms..."
- Taken from the story “A Saint and His Fate”, of Satan (Iblis), written by al-Hallaj
(d. 922), a famous Sufi writer and martyr
Meaning:
- This story portrays Iblis as the fallen lover of G-d. It is striking in that the reason
provided for Iblis’ fall is his refusal to bow to any figure (Adam in this case) other
than G-d.
Greater context:
- Sufis wished to disturb conventional attitudes and to startle people out of their
complacency, and so they used symbols connected with forbidden practices or
meanings – hence the use of Iblis as a model for the highest degree of love for and
devotion to G-d.
Relation to broader themes in Sufism:
- The form of Adam as concealing the presence of G-d sheds light on the Sufi
belief that the divine dwells within all human beings (107) – to experience this
presence is the goal of Sufism.
- “Let Him torment me in His Fire for ever and ever” – this has to do with Sufi
asceticism and renunciation of the impermanent, transient, phenomenal world.
Sufis believe that one’s self/ego must die in order to realize and experience the
Divine. Iblis seems to embody this realization – he has no preoccupation with his
physical torment, for he has realized G-d’s greatness and in this he is satisfied.
This reading is mostly about Al-Hallaj, one of the great Sufi mystics. This particular
passage comes from a Sufi tale about Satan and his unwillingness to bow down before
Adam. God made Satan such that Satan loved Him deeply, so much so that Satan could
not bring himself to adore another, ie Adam.
19. "The real challenge..."
Source:
Khaled Abou El Fadl’s “The Ugly Modern and the Modern Ugly: Reclaiming the
Beautiful in Islam,”
This quote comes from El Fadl’s piece, in which he discusses the issue of the “Ugly
Modern” – which he uses to refer to the rise of violence and extremism in the name of
Islam as well as the decline in the intellectual culture of a certain group of Muslims. This
ugly modern has in his view been a direct consequence of puritanical and literalist
movements within contemporary Islam (primarily Wahhabis, or Salafabis as he calls
them) that have arisen in the context of Islam’s post-colonial decline. These groups he
describes therefore as largely reactive to the West (whom they consider “the other”) and
the socioeconomic/political position of dependence in which these groups of people have
found themselves in recently.
This is where the quote in question fits in: as the political and economic landscape is one
in which many Muslims have found themselves in a “defeated” position. In reaction to
this, the Salafabi movements that have arisen in and partly because of this context have
adopted an anti-intellectual approach that has depended on “sensationalistic acts of power
symbolism” (i.e. terrorist acts or acts of violence against women) to sustain and assert
itself.
Salafabism, which is a fusing of Salafi and Wahhabi ideologies.
The first sentence of this passage comments on the fact that Islam, as a religion, as
entered the political realm, to the point where other facets of Islam such as the moral and
ethical sides, have become secondary.
This leads Muslims to question whether they are practicing their religion correctly
because if they are, then why would God give other men dominion over them.
20. "Oh light! Where..."
 Source and Context
o This passage is from Yahya Haqqi’s “The Saint’s Lamp”
o This source is about a bright child, Ismail, from Cairo who grows up in a
very Muslim context. After studying to be an eye doctor for 7 years in
England, he has a huge internal conflict with regard to which lens is the
correct one to view the world with: science, or religion?
o This passage occurs at the point in the story when Ismail realizes that
neither lens is perfect on its own; both sides are important and valid ways
of viewing the world and need to be used together. “there can be no
science without faith.” He is once again able to see the light from the
Saint’s Lamp in the mosque (the lamp represents religion, and more
specifically belief in the Sufi saint Umm Hashim).
 Relation to larger themes
 This story is a lot about the clash between various ideologies and civilizations:
science and Islam, East and West, Modernity and Islam, etc.
Course Essays:
On the exam we will have to answer 1 out 2 of the first three essays and will definitely
have to answer the fourth essay. For the essays, please outline a well-though out,
organized essay, with a thesis and support. Make sure to include at least 2 citations from
actual reading from the course. Also, please let us know which sources you think are
most important for preparing for these essays.
21. "A committee has been..."
Version 1 (Sam Connolly)
a. Islam receives meaning through context- through the communities that
interpret it
i. “…when we speak about the meaning of Islam today, we are really
talking about the product of cumulative enterprises that have
generated communities of interpretation through a long span of
history” (El Fadl, 39 Week 10 readings).
b. Differing interpretations of the Qur’an and the meaning of Islam result in a
diversity of opinions on Islam’s role in the political sphere, ranging from
strict, conservative Islamic rule to the removal of religion from
government altogether. In an attempt to satisfy these differing opinions,
religious tolerance, freedom, and nonviolence must be promoted under a
secular government, allowing individuals to practice their own forms of
Islam while respecting the practices of others.
c. Saudi-backed Wahhabis (SOURCES: 4/6 Lecture, Week 10 readings)
i. Conservative fundamentalist reform started by Muhammad ibn
Abd al-Wahhab in 1700s, based on the purification of Islam
ii. Supremacy of the Qur’an, which should be read & interpreted
literally
iii. Reject Shi’a and Sufi practices as heretical, challenge to
monotheism (tawhid)
iv. DEMANDS:
1. Destruction of all Sufi shrines
2. Patriarchal society, segregation of sexes. No education or
suffrage for women- required to wear hijab.
3. No music or dancing, as it is un-Islamic. (Reject cultural
developments after first 200 years)
4. Institution of religious police
5. Rule by Islamic monarchy
d. Sufis (SOURCES: 3/9-3/13 lectures, Week 7 readings)
i. Islamic mysticism, spirituality that transcends Sunni and Shi’a
divisions. Based on having a personal, spiritual relationship with
God, removal of nafs (ego, vices), guidance by shaykhs.
ii. Great popularity and influence, especially from 13th-18th centuries,
attacked by Wahhabis as a challenge to monotheism.
iii. DEMANDS:
1. Preservation of shrines- memorials of god-friends who can
offer barakah (blessing) (more info in Schimmel p. 121)
2. Dancing, singing, chanting (sama), poetry should be
allowed as ways to become closer with God/mediums of
expressing connection w/ God
3. Shaykhs should be considered legitimate, like the ulama
4. Argument that Sufism is compatible with other forms of
Islam- based ultimately in Qur’an. Tariqah, spiritual path
stems from shariah, outward laws. (Schimmel p. 109)
e. Iran-backed Shi’is (SOURCES: 3/2, 3/4 Shi’i lectures, 4/22 Iranian
revolution lecture, Week 6 readings)
i. Iran= theocratic rule by Supreme Leader (started by Iranian
revolution/Ayatollah Khomeini 1979)
ii. Twelver Shiism: belief that Ali is descendant of Muhammad,
designated to take power as Imam after prophet’s death. Faith in
Imam as intercessor, spiritual guide. Masses are unable to interpret
texts themselves through consensus, etc. God wouldn’t have left
people without a divine guide- that is why there are Imams. Belief
that 12th imam is currently in hiding.
iii. DEMANDS:
1. Islamic law is paramount- rejection of Western
secularization- return to the fundamentals of the religionreligious clothing, etc.
2. Recognition of Ali as the descendant of Muhammad and
his designated successor/recognition of Twelver Shiism
3. Imams historically had religious/political rule… but in
absence of 12th imam, rule by jurisprudent (velayat-i faqih),
like Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran
f. Secular women’s rights group (SOURCES: 4/15 lecture, Week 11
readings)
i. The Quran is read and interpreted in different ways to satisfy aims
of different groups…Bhutto: Islam is egalitarian...men make it
sexist
1. “…religion is being used as an instrument of oppression
rather than as a means of liberation” (Hassan 42).
ii. Passages in the Quran actually protect and liberate women:
1. Outlaws female infanticide, grants women rights in divorce;
rights to inherit and manage property
iii. DEMANDS:
1. Model society after Turkey: secular state, democratic
constitutional republic. Forbid religious discrimination,
universal suffrage.
2. Education of women
3. Women permitted to wear hijab if they want, but not
required
g. Resolving ideological conflicts
i. Establishment of secular state, similar to Turkey’s, will eliminate
problem of determining which type of religious leader is best to
rule over variety of Islamic groups
ii. Violence/discrimination against religious groups prohibited
iii. Freedom to practice your own form of Islam means visiting Sufi
shrines, dancing, music will be permissible
iv. Women will have the option to wear hijab/religious dress
v. Universal suffrage and education
vi. However, inevitable problem of Wahhabis and conservative Shi’is
finding these practices to be irreligious. While they would have the
freedom to wear conservative dress, abstain from dancing/music,
the fact that it will exist in society will remain a major problemthreat of Western secularization.
22. "Ahmet Kara..."
Version 1 (Erik Kuld)
This essay question is based on the first reading in the sourcebook (p.5-12, an essay by
Karamustafa). I will first summarize the main points of the reading
Karamustafa defines Islam as a civilization on the grounds that…
“A civilization is nothing more than a particular, even unique combination of ideas and
practices that groups of human actors affirm as their own and use to define and develop
their own sense of presence and agency in the world.” He says that human history is “the
story of individual and collective human agency as defined around a fascinating series of
core ideas and practices that we call civilizations (i.e. Islam, as a civilization).
He explains that we should describe the sphere of Islamic civilization as having many
distinct cultural regions instead of a “single, uniform Islamic civilization with an
unchangeable cultural kernel.”
So, given its heterogeneous make-up, Islam becomes a “sprawling civilizational edifice
under continuous construction and renovation.” (See p.11-12 in sourcebook for
Karamustafa’s summary of his own arguments.)
Now with this background knowledge, we can write an outline for the essay.
Outline:
1. Introduction. Summarize Mustafa’s arguments [as above]. Thesis: “As seen in
India/Bosnia/China/Spain/Sudan [choose three], expressions of Islam vary
depending on the cultural traditions and geographic contexts in which Islam is
being practiced.”
2. India. (See notes from Shankar’s Lecture 4/1/09)
a. Avatâra (almost like cartoons) associated with Hindi Vishnu and the
several manifestations of Vishnu (i.e. Krishna)
b. In images, Mecca is seen to exist in the head of Shaysa (a cosmic snake)
c. In images, Ali is portrayed as an avatar
d. These practices make Islam more approachable to Indians and vice versa
e. Prophet and avatar are twinned, but not the same
f. Muhammad portrayed as a jewel…the perfect man, a mirror through
which light shines through untainted.
g. This form of Islam is different, but it is a formulation of the same truth.
3. Spain (See March 16 Lecture notes…guest lecturer)
a. Spanish Muslims in Medieval Europe
b. “convivencia” - the prolonged coexistence of Muslims, Christians, and
Jews in the Iberian peninsula from 711-1492 (and beyond)… lived in
harmony without an actual decree for tolerance. But Muslims and
Christians were in a sustained political struggle over this time.
c. In 714, Spain was under Muslim rule almost entirely, but lost this rule
during the Reconquista (Christians driving Muslims out of Iberia)
d. Al-Andalus
e. Two Moazarbic jarchas (on Handout) – bilingual poems. Arabic and
Hebrew poets writing in semitic vernaculars with a Spanish punch-line
f. Ibn Hazm (author of Tawq al Hamama, and original thinker, scholar, poet),
Ibn Bajja (philosophical mind/poet), Ibn Tufayl (author of Hayy ibn
Yaqzan) and Ibn Rusd (most influential Arabic Commentary) formed the
intellectual foundation for the scholastic movement in Muslim Spain.
g. [This lecturer spoke really fast with a thick accent, please help!]
4. Bosnia (See March 18 Lecture notes.)
a. Islam was brought to Sarajevo (Bosnia) in the 15th century and it has been
Muslim ever since.
b. In Prusac (Akhisar) Bsosnia…annual pilgrimage to Ajvatovica…local
pilgrimages were a substitute for the Mecca pilgrimage (Hajj) if you
couldn’t afford it
c. Meuked (sp?) was a strong tradition in Bosnia…like the Maulud (praise of
the birth of the Prophet Muhammmad.)…also used to commemorate the
death of a loved one…performed multilingually
d. Sufi mystical orders in Bosnia (dervish lodges and rituals)
5. China (See notes from Hale’s Lecture 4/1/09)
a. Hui (Chinese-speaking) and Uyghur (Turkic speaking) Muslims
b. Hui are the descendants of Arabs (Persia and Turkish political
emissaries/merchants intermarrying with Chinese.)
c. Islam is compatible with Confucianism (despite the fact that Confucianism
denies the existence of God). This is because they share a concept of Dao
– the nature law that governs everything.
d. Sages (ie.. Confucious and Muahmmad) set a heavenly example.
e. Sini  calligraphy with long fluid strokes and gentle curves…a synthesis
of Chinese and Arabic script. Confucian vocabulary is borrowed in
muslim calligraphy
f. Mosques with Chinese architecture, rock shaped like a dragon’s head at
the Sufi Shrine
g. Hui Origin Myth – something about the emperor of China having a dream
about a beam in his palace collapsing on him, and a Hui saving him? (I
need help with this myth’s significance…)
6. Sudan (See “The Duom Tree of Wad Hamid” and the “Wedding of Zein”
readings)
7. Conclusion (Basically, context determines “Islam”; …there is no “true Islam”)
The most important readings for this essay are your notes on the above mentioned
lectures; p.5-12 (especially p.11-12) in the Sourcebook; and The Wedding of Zein
book…which we’ve already read and written/discussed about in this class.
Version 2 (Nimay Mehta)
Main Reading:
(S) Ahmet Karamustafa, “Islam: A Civilizational Project in Progress,” Progressive
Muslims, ed. Omid, Safi, 98-110.
Related Readings:
(W) A. Asani, “Introduction” Infidel of Love: Exploring Muslim Understandings of
Islam, 1-15.
(W) A. Asani, “Pluralism, Intolerance and the Quran,” American Scholar, vol. 71, no. 1,
winter 2002, 52-60.
(W) Muslim Almanac
( R ) Tayyeb Salih’s short stories
On what grounds does Karamustafa defines Islam as a civilization?
Islam as an ongoing civilizational discourse
1. not a religion
- religion is impossible to define
- noone who is religious would ever say that their religion is just a set of
beliefs; they would say it’s a way of life
2. not a culture
- islam is not completely identical with any particular culture
- more specifically, islam is not equivalent to arab culture
- cultural particularism “was given new license in the twentieth century with
the emergence of nationalism among Muslims.”
- Muslim nationalists claimed Islam for themselves and their nation
- “it would be fair to assume that most Muslims on the globe today, as
members of nationalistic cultures, associate Islam in the first instance with
their own national culture and only secondarily with any other culture.”
- but! Particularism is always challenged by universalism!
- identifying Islam with anyone culture would be “to reduce and distort it”
- we can’t ignore the “global universalizing nature of Islam”
- Islam is in and above cultures
3. Islam as a civilization
common civilizations: Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, Persian, Indian…
common view of a civilization: self-contained entities that come into being,
live their stories, then disappear, leave behind physical and mental traces on
the stage of history…natural entities w. distinct characteristics and life cycles
Karamustafa’s view of civilization: they are entities, but they are not selfcontained… “a civilization is nothing more than a particular, even
unique…combination of ideas and practices that groups of human actors –
who are the real agents of human history – affirm as their own and use to
define and develop their own sense of presence and agency in the world.”
- “human history…is the story of individual and collective human agency as
defined around a fascinating series of core ideas and practices that we call
civilizations.”
- numerous islamic cultures at local/national level are all generated from
nucleus of key ideas and practices ultimately linked to historical legacy of the
Prophet
- thus, Islam is best understood as a civilization
- these core ideas assume different shapes and colors
- “Islam is a civiliztional project in progress; it is an evolving civilizational
tradition constantly churning different cultures in its crucible to generate
innumerable, alternative social and cultural blueprints for the conduct of
human life on earth.”
4. how does it further our understanding of islam to identify it as a civilization
- if we see islam as a dynamic evolving phenomenon, then the calls “to
establish true Islam” (sign of authoritarianism) and “to unify all Muslims” are
undermined
- it allows us to cherish the global tradition and its humanistic dimensions
 As a civilizational culture, Islam is in and above specific cultures:
“as an ongoing civilizational discourse, Islam is an interactive and inclusive
tradition; it interacts with the cultures it come into contact with and, where it
takes root, reshapes and reforms cultures inclusively within. As a result, there
are numerous different Islamic cultures on the globe, and they are all equally
Islamic, equal partners in the making and remaking of the Islamic civilization
tradition”
Critique:
 Karamustafa defines culture as limited to a particular geographic location
without giving any real evidence/reasoning. There are hundreds of different
definitions of culture…in the same token, he provides us with no argument to
justify his definition of civilization. Why should we just accept that the
traditional view of civilization is wrong and his is right?
If we accept Karamustafa’s definition of a civilization, does Islam measure
up? Well, there are three parts to his definition:
1) Civilization = a particular, even unique…combination of ideas and practices that
groups of human actors – who are the real agents of human history – affirm as their own
and use to define and develop their own sense of presence and agency in the world
- if this is true, then we do in fact see numerous islamic cultures at
local/national level all generated from nucleus of key ideas and practices
ultimately linked to historical legacy of the Prophet
- looking at different countries/examples do we see this?
Asani: Muslims belong to a great variety of ethnic, linguistic and cultural
backgrounds and have, therefore, interpreted, and continue to interprete their
religion in many different ways
EX. Sudan (as seen in the Muslim Almanac and Tayyeb Salih’s short stories)
- Before the coming of Islam, there existed a Christian state and msytical
indigenous religions. By the year 1500, most of the region had come under
Muslim control. In time a blend of populations occurred and Muslim influence
and control was established. Some of the population superficially converted to
Islam, but many remained close to their ancient, traditional roots.
- In “Wedding of Zein”, we’re introduced to a town in Sudan that holds tightly
to their indigenous mystical religion, and chooses arbirtrarily whether or not
to embrace the Imam – the symbol of institutionalized religion/Islam in the
town.
- Most cast him off as aloof, someone who doesn’t do any real work, and
someone who reminds them of death and hell
- There is no obvious culture or set of ideas/practices associated with the
Imam; however many people did pray 5 times a day; look to the Imam to
conduct religious ceremonies
- Islam is originally imposed from above on Sudan, thus the villages do not
appear to wholly embrace it as their own, some see it as an outside
institutional force (like the government)
- But, there is a natural integration that appears to have occurred between
Islam and indigenous religion. The two could be accomodated; the villagers
did not have to choose one or the other
2) As a civilization, Islam = an interactive and inclusive tradition; it interacts with the
cultures it comes into contact with and, where it takes root, reshapes and reforms cultures
inclusively within.
Karamustafa: “Islam is one of only several truly global and inclusively interactive
civilizational projects currently available on our globe”
- To what extent is this true? Do we really see this inclusiveness when Islam interacts
with various cultures?
- Karamustafa proposes that its impossible to define islam. The closest we get
to a litmust test for being a Muslim is the shahada (standing witness to the
truth of the claims that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His
messenger), thus pinpointing the combination of ideas and practices is
difficult
- In concurrence, Asani (Infidel of Love) that no two scholars can agree on the
definition of a Muslim, because the two principle sources from which
Muslims derive the core concepts of their faith – the Qur’an and the example
of the Prophet – are amenable to multiple interpretations
- Asani argues by nature, Islam celebrates pluralism/tolerance (On Pluralism,
Intolerance, and the Quran)
- Although Asani does not see all forms of Islam as equal, he does see Islam
by nature as an interactive and inclusive tradition:
EX. US, impact of Amrican tradition on Islamic tradition
Asani “Pluralism” : As a pluralist Muslim who is American, I am struck by
the resonance between the pluralism espoused in the Quran and that in the
constitution and civic culture of the United States. Contrary to what some may
claim, one can be fully American and Muslim simultaneously. While it is true
that there are certain American foreign policies relating to Muslim peoples
and nations -- including partisanship for illiberal Israeli policies and support
for an intolerant Saudi state, as well as exclusivist Muslim groups -- that I
believe call for critical inquiry and for reappraisal, I also believe that my
questioning of these U.S. policies must be coupled with my challenging of
intolerant and textually dubious exclusivist interpretations within my religious
tradition. As one who is proud both of Islam and of my adopted country, and
is inspired by the consonance of their pluralism, I close with words from the
Quran that also resonate in the American collective consciousness: “In God
We Trust” (Quran 7: 89).
3) As a civilization, Islam = All islamic cultures are equally islamic.
Karamustafa: “Some cultures have longer histories of Islamization than others, but the
cultures of all people who self identify as Muslims are all equally Islamic and cannot be
hierarchically organized, as being more or less Islamic. This is primarily because Islam is
a transethnic, transnational, transracial iiom that people use to craft cultural identities for
themselves.”
- To what extent is this true? Are they really all equal?
- If this is true, then the calls “to establish true Islam” (sign of
authoritarianism) are unfounded…
- In “On Pluralism, tolerance”, Asani argues that all Islamic traditions are not
equal, deriding the misinterpretation of Islam to justify imperial goals.
- Asani proposes that only with proper training in Ancient Arabic and Islamic
history can one begin to interpret the Qur’an on their own. In Infidel of Love,
he discusses the 2005 meeting between representative of various Muslim
denominations , which put forth the Amman Message
- the Amman Message condemned as un- Islamic the practice whereby
persons, without the requisite rigorous training in Islamic
jurisprudence, such as Osama bin Laden, take it upon themselves to issue
fatwas, or legal decisions, which encourage violence and threaten Muslims
whom they accuse of being infidels. Such a practice, the Amman Message
declares, is not only a violation of a centuries old tradition of Islamic law and
theology, but is also offensive to Islamic values.
- what was clearly a reference in the Quran to a moral struggle, or an armed
struggle in the face of provocation and aggression, came to be interpreted as a
general military offensive against nonbelievers and as a means of legitimizing
political dominion.
- It is only by completely disregarding the original historical contexts of
revelation of such verses and using them to engage in a large-scale abrogation
of contradictory verses that the exclusivist Muslim exegetes have been able to
counteract the pluralist ethos that so thoroughly pervades the Quran.
EX. Wahhabi movement in Arabia – Saudi Arabia
- this puritanical movement acquired an explosive energy after its founder
allied himself with a petty Arab chieftain, Muhammad Ibn Saud.
- To propagate their particular brand of Islam, the Wahhabis attacked fellow
Muslims whose practices they considered “un- Islamic.” Targetting in
particular popular expressions of Sufi practice as well as Shii Muslims, the
Wahhabis steadily expanded their power over Central and Western Arabia
until they were able to effect the political unification of the peninsula into the
kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
- Rather than embracing popular local culture, Wahhabis attacked it in the
name of Islam as a route to personal political power
- Through the use of millions of petrodollars, the Saudis’ exclusivist
interpretation of Islam has been exported all over the Muslim world, much to
the dismay of the pluralists.
23. "A mosque..."
Version 1 (Sara Manning)
 Local Sunni (Hanafi) ulama
o We shouldn’t accept the aid
o Our community is based on a less rigid form of Islam than Wahabism.
We do not believe that women must be covered completely, and we also
do not believe that mosques must be totally whitewashed




o Accepting Wahabi aid means forfeiting our own right to interpret the
Quran as we see fit. We will be totally tied to rulings from a foreign
country, which are made in a different context altogether
o We do not believe in such strict restrictions on depictions of Muhammad,
or on celebrations of his birthday. These are important religious occasions
that we should not give up, even if it means waiting a while before
rebuilding our mosque.
o Erecting tombstones is an important religious way to commemorate the
dead. If we cannot erect tombstones, we are dishonoring the dead.
o We have never been a particularly religious community, so allowing
Wahabi Islam to replace our form of Islam will be drastic.
Members of a Sufi order
o We shouldn’t accept the aid.
o Wahabism is completely contrary to Sufism; there is little spirituality in it,
and no compassion for those who are different.
o Visiting shrines of local Sufi leaders is an integral part of Sufi practice.
Giving this up means giving up Sufism altogether. Our order will
disintegrate.
o Under Wahabism, we will not be able to find the esoteric, hidden
meanings of the Quran: “Now verily it is We who have created the human
and We know what the innermost self whispers within him: We are closer
to him than his neck vein”
Advocates for the conservation/preservation of Bosnian cultural and religious
identity
o We should not accept the aid
o Allowing a Wahabi prayer leader to lead our community, and giving up all
cultural practices that are against Wahabism, is simply self-destruction.
o The tombstones that we have erected are hundreds of years old, and they
represent the cultural history of our people. We are not Saudi Arabian; we
have no history with them, and little in common in our cultures.
Muslim women’s organization
o Don’t accept the aid
o We are used to having the same rights as men, to working outside the
home and dressing in modern clothing. Wearing a niquab will change our
identity, and will take away the rights that we have fought for.
o Women in Saudi Arabia can’t own their own businesses and are limited to
certain professions. Having just come through a genocide and lost so
many people, why should we lose even more by giving up our jobs?
o Women in Saudi Arabia barely even attend the mosque; allowing Wahabis
to take over our mosque is effectively kicking us out of religious practice.
Supporters of the Saudi charity
o In the spirit of Zaka’, we have offered our support to rebuild the mosques
in Bosnia that were razed by non-Muslim infidels.
o Doesn’t this event make you rethink the drawbacks of living in a nonMuslim country?
o How else will you rebuild the mosque? Nobody else has offered, because
nobody else is as moved by the compassionate spirit of Islam as we are.
o Your earlier form of Islam was based on the Christian influences that you
lived under. Coming from a Muslim country, we have been able to fine
tune the purest form of Islam, and now we can share it with you, so that
you may become better Muslims.
Version 2 (Ari Kriegel)
The question poses the hypothetical dilemma in which in order to get money from a
Saudi charity to renovate a Mosque, a village in Bosnia must accept a Wahhabi prayer
leader and curtail certain “un-Islamic practices.” We must respond from the perspectives
of several different groups.
 Sunni (Hanafi) ulama
o Sources of authority (in order of importance): Quran, Hadith, ijma
(consensus), qiyas (logical reasoning…only applicable when no ruling can
be found in Qur’an or Hadith.)
o Compared to the other groups, would most likely not care much about
many of the proposed changes, as they do not directly contradict the
Quran or Hadith. (I have not found any Quranic sources or Hadith in
which any of the “un-Islamic” behavior described by the question is
specifically allowed or forbidden)
 Might care most about the institution of a Wahabbi prayer leader
as it would directly threaten their status as the local heads of
religion.
 Still, Wahhabis have a similar general outlook on Islamic
jurisprudence as Halafi Sunni (Wahhabis are also Sunni). The
biggest difference is the Wahhabi focus on eliminating all elements
of a culture that might come from a non-Islamic source
o I don’t see any explicit reason why these ulama should support one side or
the other. Cases can be made for both.
 Pro-mosque: As religious leaders, understand the importance of
having a central place of worship for the community, and in
general, don’t disagree with the Wahabbis too much. Could, in fact,
support some of the abolishment of the “un-Islamic” practices, if
they are characters similar to the Imam in the Wedding of Zein.
That is, due to their status as religious leaders, they stand
somewhat apart from the community as a whole.
 Anti-mosque: See this as invasive into their domain—don’t want
to accept a Wahabbi prayer leader. The biggest difference between
Wahhabism and Hanafi Islam is that Hanafis recognize all schools
of Sunni Islam as worthy (including the Hanbali school to which
Wahhabis subscribe), while Wahhabism generally criticizes and
labels “un-Islamic” anything that is not like them. Additionally, the
relationship of Wahhabis to the Jihadi Salafis is an issue (they
were largely conflated in our course, but non-Salafi Wahhabis
certainly do not see it this way). Finally, the issue of ijma could
influence their decision as community consensus is almost
definitely against the changes.
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
Sufi order
o Ultimate goal of all Sufis is to achieve the state of fitra, some sort of
conception of being in the “primordial” state or of achieving oneness with
God.
 While Sufism does profess the importance of shariah, it is clear
that in general, the achievement of fitra is of primary importance.
o Thus, focus of religious life is not on the mosque (think of the character
Haneen in Wedding of Zein or of the various Sufis we’ve learned about)
but rather on the personal spiritual journey.
o The Sufis will undoubtedly be upset about the prohibition of visiting
shrines to Sufi masters (and perhaps the prohibition against tombstones as
well), as respect for previous Sufi masters is central to Sufi tradition.
o Will no doubt oppose the accepting of aid from the Wahhabi charity.
Advocates for the conservation/preservation of a Bosnian cultural and religious
identity
o Articles online summarize the Bosnian-Serbian conflict. Essentially, since
declaring its independence in 1992, Bosnia has been under nearly constant
attack by Serb forces in order to try to destroy any Bosnian cultural,
religious or historical landmarks. (This, in fact, is most likely the reason
why the Bosnian village would need to renovate the mosque in the first
place).
o Beyond the obvious opposition such a group would have against
foreigners mandating a change in lifestyle and taking for themselves
positions of power, there is a more subtle objection relating to the reason
why the mosque was destroyed in the first place: that is, it was destroyed
by those seeking to destroy their way of life. To accept aid from the
Wahhabi charity would be assisting the Serbs in those goals.
o Moreover, it was obviously a theme of the class that Islam is multi-faceted
and can influence and be influenced by local cultures in productive ways.
Giving examples of how this has worked in places such as China or Sudan
would help their argument.
o Could also cite the Saudi mutaween which are the Halabi religious police
whose job it is to root out any “un-Islamic” activity.
Muslim women’s organization
o Wahhabi attitude toward women is controversial at best (abusively
inhuman at worst).
 The story we read about the girls who died in the school fire
because the Government religious police would not let them out of
school without their headscarves is a relevant example.
 Story about woman being sentenced to jail for being raped.
o In Saudi Arabia, women cannot vote, drive, or even leave the house
without a male relative.
o There is record that Al-Wahhab (the founder of Wahhabism) was
concerned with the fact that women were not receiving equal shares of the

inheritance as men, as mandated by the Quran, but clearly such concerns
have fallen by the wayside in modern Wahhabism.
Supporters of the Saudi charity
o Obviously must argue in favor of Wahhabism.
 Arguments should center around the “rightness” of Islam and the
“wrongness” of essentially everything else.
 Appeal to the “inner Muslim” and claim that the best way to be
loyal to that is to eliminate non-Muslim influences.
 Argue that erecting tombstones, visiting shrines, and celebrating
the birthday of Muhammad are all actions that come directly out of
local culture—not Islamic culture/religion, and that this directly
contradicts laws against idolatry.
 Defend against accusations that Wahhabism is immoral by either
citing Quran, or claiming that the prohibition of certain clearly unIslamic acts will not result in the creation of a society like that in
Saudi Arabia.
o Emphasize the importance of a mosque to a community
 Central place of worship brings community together
 Honors God
 Resist Serbs
24. "Professor Ali..."
Version 1 (Benjamin Newmark)
 Introduction
o Professor Asani’s statement in “Infidel of Love” is about how religion is
only interpreted by people, and as people are all different, their
interpretations will be different.
o The quotation by Carl Ernst is about how when people talk about religion,
they do so from a particular background. So to understand their position,
you must also understand this background.
o In this course we have studied Islam from the perspectives of many
different types of Muslims
o Islam is not just a religion in terms of worship of God, it is inherently
linked to society and culture
o So each persons perspective on Islam, is partially determined by their
background
o Thesis: Religion is a human construct so necessarily it is influenced by
people and their culture and context.
 In the story of “The Doum Tree of Wad Hamid” we learned about how the
special, extreme, conditions of a village in Sudan led to their religious experience
to be centered around a tree. (Citation: The Wedding of Zein and other stories Tayeb Saleh)
o The village in Tayeb Saleh’s story has very harsh conditions (hot, dry,
sand flies, horse flies)
o They are isolated from the rest of the muslim world
o The center of their village is this tree, a constant symbol in the village
o
o
o
o
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It has mystic qualities such as healing the sick
So it is worshiped like a Sufi shrine. It is their intermediary to God
They are very resistant to the removal of the tree
Their history of isolation and harsh living conditions have shaped their
own context of religion around this Tree
Fundamentalism in countries like Saudi Arabia lead to states defined by religious
law, and a system of religion defined by the state. (The ugly modern and the
modern ugly: reclaiming the beautiful in islam - Khaled el-Fadl)
o Wahhabi-Salafi ideology, which is rooted firmly in puritanical ideas
derived from the Qur’an, was adopted by the Saud clan, who came to
power in the mid 20th century and set up the state of Saudi Arabia
o This led to a state that was based around an ideology which is antihistorical and anti-cultural orientation, which goes against the statements
of Carl Ernst
o In doing so they created a type of religion that was defined by this
particular context, living in this fundamentalist culture
o This ideology, which is so against Sufi mysticism, the Shia and just about
every other interpretation of religion, and all of the actions its followers
commit, is derived from a few men’s pariticular experiences with Islam,
and is maintained through states such as Saudi Arabia
The story of “The Saints Lamp” shows how one man’s own experience with
different cultures helped define his relationship with religion. (The Saint’s Lamp Yahya Haqqi)
o Ismail grows up a pious Muslim boy in Egypt
o He is smart so he goes to England to study medicine. He comes back
much less devout, having been influenced heavily by liberal England, now
liking alcohol and women
o He doesn’t understand his home culture, and their crude use of the lamp
oil as medicine
o But he is reawakened to his old beliefs and traditions. He goes back to
being a Muslim, relying on God to help him be a good doctor, rather than
just science.
o His life was influenced by two different cultures, and in the end his
interpretation of religion was also a combination of the two
Malcolm X and others’ use of Islam and faith as part of the civil rights movement
(Malcom X’ biography and speeches on website)
o The anger against slavery and treatment by white people led to the
rejection of the Bible and Christianity and the conversion of many to Islam
o Religion in terms of “the nation of islam” and other groups was a way of
splitting from the past
o It in turn helped shaped the future in rallying towards equal rights for all
races
o Islam was used for this political goal, and it in the case of The Nation is
Islam was defined partly by this goal
(The question calls for your own particular context in shaping your construct of
religion so you’ll want to put in a point here for that)

Conclusion
o Religion, specifically in the case of Islam, can only be defined by the
individual or groups interpretation of it.
o There are different interpretations of the religion around the world and
through history
o To understand the religion we must understand each groups’ relationship
with Islam
o Religion is only relevant to its believers, so to understand religion, we
must study the way people see it, not just its origins and fundamental
doctrines.
Version 2 (Brady Weissbourd)
Thesis: Analyzing religion from a cultural perspective and recognizing contextual
histories of religious leaders are essential to the understanding of Islam in contemporary
societies.
Looking at Wahhabism and the history of Saudi Arabia from a contextual approach helps
us understand conservative views in modern Saudi Arabia
 At first glance, it is hard to imagine why Saudis cling to very conservative lives
o Subjugation of women
o No music, strict dress code
o Religious police
 A purely political argument may be that the government or old conservative
leaders enforce this view upon the Saudi people, but this approach does not give
the full story
o The Saudi government in fact wants to push its people towards modernity
and interact more with the West, but the Saudi people resist this
progressive trend (video shown during class)
o Some women prefer to wear their hijab
 A contextual approach reveals forces that support conservatism
o Wahhabism (historical context)
 Saudi Arabia comes from alliance of Muhammad ibn Saud with
Muhammad ibn al-Wahhab in 18th century
 Al-Wahhab was in turn influenced by Ibn al-Taimiyya, who
espoused a literalist interpretation of the Qur’an
 Declared Shia and Sufis to be heretical, opposed Jews and
Christians
 Belief in “intercession” unislamic
 Supremacy of salaf: the first generation of Muslims
 His viewpoint influences modern Saudi culture
o The West and Oil (political context)
 The West and Christianity perceived as a domineering, imperialist
force that wants to use the Islamic world for its own interests
 Moreover, the Wahhabi ideology was harnessed by the West to
fight communism during the Cold War


The country is protective of its oil reserves
Thus, Saudis adopt Islamic conservatism because it is the antithesis
to Western liberal, secular society
o Hijab (social context) (see Karen Armstrong’s article “My years in a habit
taught me the paradox of veiling”)
 Comes from shariah and state law
 However, many women prefer to wear the hijab
 It prevents men from staring at them or making comments at them,
thus empowering them
 It also rejects Western ideas of sexuality
Contextual analysis also helps to explain strong mystical influences on Islam in Africa
 Historical and social contexts
o Many places in Africa have a long history of animism and other natural
sources of spirituality
o When Islam arrives in Africa from Arabia, it integrates with the local
culture
o Example: “Doum Tree of Wad Hamid” by Tayeb Salih
 The Doum Tree bowing in prostration to Allah in a dream is an
example of such integration between integration and a local
symbol of spirituality
 This takes place in Chad
o Emirs would have local religious power, they would visit village to village
 Political context
o Many countries in Africa have always been governed on a local, tribal
level, evidenced in “Doum Tree” and “The Wedding of Zein”
 The village would conduct its own affairs
 “Zein” involved its own division of affairs
 Mahjoub and his gang have administrative duties
 Imam carries out traditional religious rituals
 Haneen is the spiritual leader
o Suspicion towards national-level governments, also evidenced in “Doum
Tree”
 They did things for their interest, such as constructing wells or
ferry stops
 They did not understand the significance of the Doum Tree
o Moreover, many national governments are unstable and must focus on
things other than religion
o Thus, religion is left up to local groups; not much codification or
standardization of the faith across villages
Contextual analysis helps explain the race-based formulations of Islam in the United
States
 Historical and social context
o African Americans have a long history of being persecuted and treated
unfairly in the United States
o
o
o
o

Slavery to segregation to racism after integration
They developed their own culture and social networks
Their lives were marked by economic unrest and high unemployment
Thus, the incarnations of Islam bear the influence of such historical
developments
o They sought an alternate source of spirituality and leadership that
understood their hardships and to which they could turn
 Moorish Science Temple incorporated a Moorish Manufacturing
Corporation
o They felt a lost sense of identity within the larger American society
 Moorish Science Temple: Timothy Drew sent as a “prophet” by
Allah to restore lost identity to African Americans
 Malcolm X: the X represents lost identity
Political context
o Religious leaders began to demand a separate black nation
 Moorish Science Temple developed its own flag
 Nation of Islam demanded separate black schools, fertile land, ban
on interracial marriage, and exemption from taxation
o Islam seen as antithesis of white Christianity, so blacks adopted it to
oppose their subjugation
o Islam has its own culture, dress, language, and other components; thus,
practicing religion seemed to separate oneself from the rest of white
America
My personal contexts have also shaped my construction of religion
 Historical and social contexts
o I did not grow up in a religious family, so I do not have an innate sense of
religious spirituality from childhood
o My childhood friends came from a variety of religious backgrounds
(Christian, Jewish, Hindu), which makes me view religion as a cultural
phenomenon amenable to a plurality of opinions, as opposed to belief in
one true God
o As a liberal arts college student in an intellectually rich and diverse
environment, I am intrigued by religion and maintain an open mind to
such an unfamiliar subject; I am inclined to treat the study of religion
more intellectually than spiritually
 Political contexts
o I am politically liberal, which may make me oppose conservative religious
opinions in America, such as the idea of America as a de facto Christian
nation, the use of prayer in public schools, and religious symbolism in
courthouse statues.
Obvious point that they want you to make: that religion and culture are closely
intertwined…that “Islam” doesn’t say or do anything, but people do.
Other Specific examples:
(1) The example of the Veil (or issues of gender equality in general)
a. See “gender and Islam” powerpoint – particularly slide 17+
b. Quran interpreted by men…
(2) The laws of the Taliban closely tied to tribal law.
(3) Chinese Muslims – Confucius as prophet, calligraphy, architecture, etc.
a. See Hale’s powerpoint on Muslims in China:
•Islam= The Dao of Muhammad
•The Sage of the West, Muhammad, was born after Confucius and lived in
Arabia. He was so far removed in time and space from the Chinese sages that
we do not even know exactly how much. The languages they spoke were
mutually unintelligible. How, is it then that their ways are in full accord? The
answer is that they were of one mind. Thus, their Dao (the way) is the same.
•Tian 天 = Heaven
•Sheng 聖= Sage
•Chinese Muslims used the term Tian to refer to Allah, and the term Sheng to
refer to Prophet Muhammad
(4) Muslims in African
a. Pretty good article on the course website:
http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic536575.files/subsuharan_africa.p
df
(5) Black Nationalist Movement, Malcolm X, and Muslims in America
a. See “Muslim cultures in the United States” lecture