Download Key Terms Period 1: c. 8000 BCE – c. 600 BCE Chapter 1 1. Homo

Key Terms
Period 1: c. 8000 BCE – c. 600 BCE
Chapter 1
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Homo sapiens
modern or “consciously thinking” humans, with increasingly large brains featuring well
developed frontal regions
evolved about 200,000 years ago
variants include Neanderthal (100,00 to 200,000 years ago) and the more advanced CroMagnon (60,000 to 100,000 years ago)
by about 50,000 years ago had evolved vocal chords and a separate mouth cavity with a
tongue, which enabled them to develop spoken languages and communicate ever more
complex and inventive messages and ideas
ancestors came from Africa and had by 15,000 years ago migrated to and peopled all
habitable regions of the world
Paleolithic era
the Old Stone Age (c. 2.5 million years ago to about 8000 BCE)
predates agricultural societies, as humans were hunter-gatherers using stone and bone
tools such as spears, bows, arrows, fishhooks, harpoons and pots
extended families grew into clans, sometimes merging with neighboring clans to form
more sophisticated tribes with chiefs and religious figures, such as shamans
warfare was common, and weapons included rocks, clubs, knives, spears, axes
religion was polytheistic, with rituals featuring human or animal sacrifice to gods,
goddesses and spirits
art emerged, including cave paintings and the flute as a musical instrument
men hunted and women gathered, and gender equality was the norm
Neolithic era
the New Stone Age (c. 8000 BCE to about 3000 BCE)
sometimes referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, but era was a long transition from
hunter-gatherer to farming lifestyle, featuring the domestication of animals and crops
the point at which world population begins to increase markedly and “civilization” begins
to emerge, with five basic features: 1) advanced cities; 2) advanced technology; 3)
complex institutions; 4) specialized labor; 5) recordkeeping
sedentary agricultural societies enabled the accumulation of wealth, which led to the
emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and a reduction in the role and status of
women
earliest agricultural societies appeared in southwest Asia and spread to Africa, India,
Europe and Asia; agricultural techniques likely developed independently in East Asia and
Mesoamerica
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labor specialization
in villages of increasing size, some people were now relieved of the need to participate in
food production and began to specialize in other jobs
three of the earliest and most common craft industries were pottery, metallurgy and
textile (or cloth) production
metallurgy
systematic techniques of metalworking
because it occurs naturally in many regions of the world and is easily malleable, copper
was first hammered into jewelry and simple tools
by 5000 BCE furnaces were used to melt copper and pour it into molds to make knives,
axes, hoes and rudimentary weapons … and this template served later craftsmen as they
became expert in working with gold, bronze, iron and other metals
Chapter 2
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Mesopotamia
“the land between the rivers” … the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in modern-day Iraq
earliest city-states, such as Ur and Babylon, appeared by about 5000 BCE in southern
region of Mesopotamia, called Sumer
Sumerians are believed to have invented the wheel, the sail and the plow
water from the rivers – which flooded often and unpredictably – was central to the
civilization, and large public-works projects, such as irrigation canals, were undertaken
Sumerian city-states had a shared culture but separate governments, with their own rulers
and gods
Sumerians were polytheistic (worshipped more than one god), believing natural events
were caused by the gods
harsh life, frequent flooding and invasions transmitted to a religion of “rough” gods
cuneiform
earliest form of writing, c. 2900 BCE, originating in Mesopotamia
featured wedge-shaped marks and pictographic symbols impressed onto wet clay, which
was then dried in the sun or baked in an oven
keeping records of commercial transactions and tax collections became more important
as society became increasingly complex
The Epic of Gilgamesh
Mesopotamia’s greatest work of literature, c. 2000 BCE
an epic poem of about 3,000 lines that explored issues of friendship, the relations
between humans and gods, and the meaning of life and death
Gilgamesh, the Mesopotamian hero, is confronted with terrifying visions of an afterlife
featuring disembodied spirits of the dead stumbling around in the darkness for eternity,
eating dust and clay
ziggurats
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stepped pyramid-like temples that Sumerians built to please their gods
they housed temples and altars to the principal local deity
the massive nature of these structures suggest they required as much as 1,500 workers
laboring 10 hours a day for five years
Hammurabi’s Code
Sumerian rulers and promulgated laws perhaps as early as 2500 BCE, but the Babylonian
ruler Hammurabi (reigned 1792-1750 BCE) set down an extensive written code of laws
establishing a high standards of behavior and stern punishments
relied on the principle of lex talionis (the “law of retaliation”), whereby offenders
suffered punishments similar to their violations (“an eye for an eye”), and accounted for
social standing, favoring the upper classes
death penalty for murder, theft, fraud, false accusations, sheltering of runaway slaves,
failure to obey royal orders, adultery, incest
included civil laws regulating prices, wages, commercial dealings, marital relationships
and the conditions of slavery
concept of a written set of rules to govern society, as opposed to the arbitrary whims of
rulers, would influence later civilizations
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Bronze Age
 copper alloyed with tin produces bronze, a harder and stronger metal
 Mesopotamian metalworkers began making bronze implements about 4000 BCE
 immediate impact on military affairs as bronze was used to make more effective swords,
spears, axes, shields and armor
 over time had an impact in agriculture as bronze-tipped plows were introduced
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Iron Age
 around 1300 BCE craftsmen in Anatolia forged exceptionally strong iron tools and
weapons, improving upon the brittle iron experiments that began in the fourth
millennium BCE
 because iron deposits were much cheaper and more widely available than copper and tin
(the ingredients of bronze), iron quickly became the metal of choice in Anatolia,
Mesopotamia and beyond
 the Assyrian Empire made effective use of iron technology as they conquered lands from
Mesopotamia through Syria, Palestine, much of Anatolia and Egypt
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Patriarchal Society
Defined as a society organized and run by men. Men make the rules and dominate in
business and government. It is said to be a “man’s world”, men make the rules and
dominate in all forums outside the home. A women’s main value is to support a man
(behind every good man is a good woman), bear children and housekeeping duties.
Women became aware of the discrimination and double standard imposed upon them by
this male dominated society. This is because suddenly women became part of the
workforce, but weren’t treated equally.
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Slaves
A system under which people are treated as properly to be bought and sold, and are
forced to work.
Slavery was institutionally recognized by many societies.
In more recent times slavery has been outlawed.
In pre-industrialized societies, slaves and their labor were economically extremely
important. Slaves and serfs made up around three-quarters of the world’s population at
the beginning of the 19th century.
Cuneiform
One of the earliest known systems of writing.
Emerging in Sumer in the late 4th millennium BC.
The original Sumarian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Eblaite,
Elamite, Hittite, Luwan, and the Ugaritite and Old Persian alphabets.
Written on clay tablets.
Was gradually replaced by the phoencian alphabet then by the 2nd century AD the script
became extinct.
Yahweh & Monotheism
According to Judaic tradition, the patriarch Abraham, who lived near the Sumerian city
of Ur, entered into a covenant with the god YHWH (which may have been pronounced
Yahweh but was considered too holy to say aloud, and is sometimes rendered Jehovah).
YHWH swore to make the Hebrews – if they obeyed his will – his “chosen people” and
to lead them to the “promised land” of Canaan (present-day Israel).
The modern Jewish nation-state of Israel was created in 1948 … but the story of its
creation goes back about 4,000 years, beginning with the nomadic Hebrews (“Jews” and
“Jewish” were not common terms until the ninth century BCE).
The faith practiced by Hebrews – Judaism – is generally considered to have been the
world’s first monotheistic religion (i.e., the first to devote itself exclusively to the
worship of one god).
Along with Christianity, which grew out of it, Judaism forms a key foundation of
Western society’s ethical, intellectual and cultural legacy.
Phoenician trade
Expanded in the Mediterranean in the beginning of the last millennium BC.
The Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre were famous for their purple dye, made from
snails. Sidon also had a well-known glass industry. The Phoenicians also exported wine,
oil, cedar and pine woods, textiles like fine linen, glass, metalwork, salt, and
manufactured goods.
Phoenician alphabet
A non-pictographic consonantal alphabet.
It was used for the writing of Phoenician, a northern Semitic language, used by the
civilization of Phoenicia. It is classified as an abjad because it records only consonantal
sounds.
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Became one of the most widely used writing systems, spread by Phoenician merchants
across the Mediterranean world where it was assimilated by many other cultures and
evolved.
Other famous and large alphabets originated from this first alphabet.
Indo-European migrations
Were a group of nomadic peoples who came from the steppes—dry grasslands that
stretched north of the Caucasus.
These primarily pastoral people herded cattle, sheep, and goats. Also tamed horses and
rode into battle in light, two-wheeled chariots.
They lived in tribes that spoke forms of a language that we call Indo-European.
Ancestors of many of the modern languages of Europe, Southwest Asia, and South Asia.
English, Spanish, Persian, and Hindi all trace their origins back to different forms of the
original Indo-European language.
horses
domesticated by Indo-European speakers about 4000 BCE, vastly magnifying their
power as they were now able to exploit the grasslands of southern Russia
horses as transportation were much faster and efficient than cattle, donkey or humans and
provided Indo-Europeans with a tremendous military advantage over peoples they
encountered
horses also gave Indo-Europeans the ability to expand and migrate into other parts of
Europe and Asia (Aryans were one group that migrated down through India)
war chariots
a type of carriage drawn by horses
used for war as well as more peaceable pursuits such as hunting or racing for sport, and
as a chief vehicle of many ancient peoples, when speed of travel was desired rather than
how much weight could be carried
invented by the Hittites, an Indo-European people who migrated to the central plain of
Anatolia (modern-day Turkey)
Chapter 3
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Nile River valley
the Nile River was fed by rain and melting snow from the east African mountains
the world’s longest river starting at Lake Victoria, and ending at its delta in the
Mediterranean Sea
predictable flooding in sharp contrast to the unpredictable and destructive flooding of the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia … contributing to a different conception of
the afterlife in Egypt compared to the hellish one in Mesopotamia
Egypt
at roughly the same time as Mesopotamia, Egyptian civilization emerged along the Nile
River, the world’s longest
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narrow region along the banks supports lush vegetation amid surrounding deserts
predictable flooding = stable agriculture, surplus
unlike Mesopotamia, Egypt’s natural isolation fostered a unique culture with long periods
of relative stability
Egyptians were polytheistic, having an elaborate religion that included the idea of life
after death.
Egyptian Book of the Dead – the most important religious text, detailing what happens to
the soul and how to reach a happy afterlife
the afterlife was central to the most famous aspects of Egyptian civilization:
mummification (the art of preserving bodies after death) and the building of gigantic
tombs (including the pyramids, which were meant to provide resting places for pharaohs
after they died)
in addition to building great pyramids, Egyptians were talented makers of bronze tools
and weapons
they developed great knowledge of medicine, mathematics and astronomy … and devised
the 365-day calendar that, with minor modifications, is still used today
papyrus, a paper-like product that could be written on with ink, was invented in Egypt
and exported in large quantities for scribes throughout the ancient world
women had relatively high status in ancient Egypt – they could express themselves more
freely than Mesopotamian women; could buy, sell, inherit and will property as they
chose; could dissolve their marriages – but were still expected to be subservient to men
Nubia
Nubia is the name for the thousand-mile stretch of the Nile Valley covering land in
modern-day Egypt and Sudan
enters the historical record around 2300 BCE.
Nubia is the only continuously inhabited stretch of territory connecting sub-Saharan
Africa (the lands south of the vast Sahara Desert) with North Africa.
for thousands of years it has served as a corridor for trade between tropical Africa and the
Mediterranean.
its land is a treasure-trove of natural wealth, with rich deposits of gold, copper and
semiprecious stones.
Egyptian craftsmen more than 4,000 years ago were already working with ivory and
ebony wood – products of tropical Africa that must have come through Nubia
noblemen stationed along the southernmost region of ancient Egypt led donkey caravans
south in search of gold, incense, ebony, ivory, slaves, exotic animals  dangerous
missions, which must have entailed delicate negotiations with Nubian chiefs
Nubia was traditionally seen as a derivative culture lying on the outskirts of Egypt, but
scholars now emphasize its interactions with Egypt
now there’s growing evidence that Nubian culture synthesized influences not just from
Egypt but also from sub-Saharan peoples
pharaoh
an Egyptian monarch – king or later queen
considered the living incarnation of the chief deity, the sun god Re (“ray”).
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the benevolent rule of the pharaoh and the Egyptians’ conception of a divine king as the
source of law and order may explain the absence of an impersonal law equivalent to
Hammurabi’s Code
hieroglyphics
the Egyptian writing system that consisted of a series of pictures (hieroglyphs) that
represented letters and words
we can read ancient Egyptian writing only because of the 19th-century CE discovery of
the Rosetta Stone, a 2nd-century BCE inscription that gave hieroglyphic and Greek
versions of the same text
Bantu migrations
the movement of early African peoples who shared certain cultural characteristics and
spoke the Bantu family of languages
they farmed, fished, had domesticated goats and dogs, and crafted pottery and cloth
the Bantu migrations proceeded for 2,000 years or so as these people moved farther and
farther south into areas of Africa formerly occupied by nomads
around 1000 BCE they began producing iron tools, and they used these in conjunction
with their slash-and-burn farming technique, in which a patch of forest is cut down and
burned so that the ashes are mixed with the soil to create a fertile garden area ... this
technique, though, leads to only short-term land fertility and thus necessitates further
migration within a few years.
around 500 BCE the Bantus were aided in their migration pattern by the introduction of
banana cultivation (brought to Africa via the Indian Ocean trading network), which
enabled them to expand into heavily forested areas
the Bantu migrations from 400 BCE to 1000 CE took Africa’s population from about 3.5
million to 22 million as they spread agriculture throughout much of Africa
today, more than 500 distinct but related languages can be traced back to the Bantus
Chapter 4
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Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
the two main archaeological sites of the Indus River Valley civilization, discovered in the
early 20th century
this mysterious ancient civilization (c. 2500-1500 BCE) stretched for more than 900
miles along the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which is
present-day Pakistan
archaeologists have found as many as 1,500 communities that thrived along the Indus
River, which was an excellent transportation system that provided access to the Arabian
Sea
two biggest urban sites, supporting 30-40,000 inhabitants: Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa,
from which we get the term Harappan civilization (or society)
all of what we know of this civilization comes from the archaeological record because its
writing system of more than 400 signs has not been deciphered
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in contrast to early Mesopotamian cities, which were jumbled mazes of irregular
buildings made of sun-dried mud bricks, Harappan cities were more sophisticated, with a)
buildings and streets laid out in precise grids, b) buildings constructed with oven-baked
bricks cut in standard sizes, and c) extensive and modern-looking indoor plumbing, with
showers and toilets with wooden seats, and pipes connecting each house to an
underground sewer system
although Harappan society remained primarily based on agriculture (harvested wheat,
barley, rice, peas; took meat from cattle, sheep and goats; first to domesticate chickens),
trading contacts were widespread throughout the Indus Valley, as the river provided
excellent means of transportation
cotton may have been cultivated as early as 5000 BCE, and fragments of dyed cloth from
around 2000 BCE suggest textile industry
Harappans obtained gold, silver, copper, lead, gems from neighboring peoples in Persia
(through the Khyber Pass in the Hindu Kush Mountains)
traded with Mesopotamians, mostly via watercraft along the Arabian Sea and through the
Persian Gulf, as evidenced by Harappan seals on objects discovered in the TigrisEuphrates region
Aryans
a subgroup of peoples known as Indo-Europeans – nomadic peoples from the dry
grasslands north of the Caucasus Mountains who spoke different forms of a language
called Indo-European
Aryans migrated down through the Khyber Pass of the Hindu Kush Mountains and into
the Indian subcontinent around the time the Harappan civilization was crumbling
a mainly pastoral people that herded cattle and used horses extensively; they did little but
some agriculture
the Aryan migration into India was NOT an organized invasion
taller and lighter-skinned, the Aryans interacted and intermarried with the darker-skinned
Dravidian population already there, laying the cultural and social foundations that would
influence India to this day
they also fought amongst themselves, and with the Dasas (another name for the speakers
of Dravidian languages), pushing many into central and southern India, where their
descendants still live (Dravidian speech prevails in the south today while Indo-European
languages are spoken in northern India)
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The Vedas
the sacred literature of the Aryans, brought to India originally only in the oral tradition as
they had no writing
four collections of prayers, magical spells and instructions for performing rituals
first and most important was the Rig Veda, whose chief deity was a violent figure said to
wield thunderbolts and lead Aryans into battle … thus reflecting the instability and
turbulence of early Vedic society
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caste system
evolved from the class system that Aryans brought with them, determining each person’s
role in society
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jati
refers to the numerous clans, tribes, communities, and sub-communities that one is born
into Indian-Aryan society
also refers to their role(s) in each respective community
can also be considered a subcategory of a caste
complex rules regulated interactions of different jati
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sati
religious and ritual burning of a deceased man’s wife along with the corpse of the male
a demonstration of devotion to one’s husband
women were expected to willingly leap into the flames, or otherwise be shunned
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it became more strict in order to regulate the closer contacts between Aryans and nonAryans
based initially on varna, a Sanskrit term meaning “color” and referring to skin color (later
the term meant something akin to “class”), the four classes were: Brahmins (priests),
Kshatriya (warriors and officials), Vaishya (merchants, artisans and landowners), and
Shudra (peasants and serfs)
The bottom class, Shudra, may have been reserved for Dasas, who were given menial
jobs the Aryans didn’t want to do (dasa, in fact, came to mean “slave”)
a fifth group was later added: the Untouchables – people excluded from the class system
and to be avoided because their touch endangered the ritual purity of others (this because
of their occupation: butchers, gravediggers, trash collectors, etc.)
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The Upanishads
group of religious and philosophical manuscripts that is the foundation of Hindu religion
the last several parts of the Vedas, which were collections of hymns, songs, prayers and
rituals honoring the various gods of the Aryans
Upanishad literally means “a sitting in front of” and refers to the practice of disciples
gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues
teachings included the idea that each person participates in a larger cosmic order and
forms a small part of the universal sole, known as Brahman
moksha
a state of perfect understanding, a release from the cycle of reincarnations (“the wheel of
life”) and union with the divine force that animates the universe
achieved through accumulation of positive karma
Chapter 5
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Yellow River
aka the “Huang He” River in China, second largest river in Asia after the Yangtze, which
lies to the south
location where Chinese civilization first developed
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Considered the “cradle of Chinese civilization” as well as “China’s sorrow” due to
frequent flooding and course changes
Zhou dynasty
the longest lasting dynasty in Chinese history (c. 1027-221 B.C.E.)
innovations in technology and trade: blast furnaces capable of producing cast iron, coined
money, roads and canals
decline due to conflicts with nomadic peoples such as the Huns and local rulers claiming
independence
Mandate of Heaven
Chinese form of the “divine right of kings”
the ruler (“Son of Heaven”) had been chosen by the supreme deity (“Heaven”) and would
remain in his good graces so long as the ruler was a wise and just guardian of his people
proof of this divine favor was in the pudding: prosperity and stability  continuation of
the dynasty … but corruption, violence, arrogance, natural calamities, insurrection meant
divine displeasure (the mandate was lost) and a new dynasty would arise to claim the
mandate
Period of the Warring States
time period during the chaotic fall of the Zhou Dynasty (480-221 B.C.E.)
politically decentralized Chinese society with multiple communities fighting for
dominance
led to the birth of social and ethical belief systems such as Legalism, Daoism, and
Confucianism in order to attempt to bring peace and stability to Chinese society
ancestor veneration
a pronounced cultural practice in China whereby graves and memories of departed
ancestors are diligently tended to because their spirits are believed to have been passed
into a realm of existence from which they have the power to support and protect their
surviving families if the descendants display proper respect
fostered a strong ethic of family solidarity and involved the patriarchal head of the family
presiding at rites and ceremonies honoring ancestors’ spirits, sometimes offering
sacrifices of food and drink at grave sites
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oracle bones
earliest evidence of Chinese writing
animal bones and tortoise shells on which priests would scratch questions for the gods
answers interpreted depending on how the bones cracked when touched with a hot poker
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Book of Songs
the most notable work of classic literature from the Zhou dynasty
a collection of hundreds of poems that reflect conditions of the early Zhou era, though
compiled much later
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some verses had political implications because they recorded the illustrious deeds of
heroic figures and ancient sage-kings, but many offer insight into the daily lives of
typical Zhou peasants and the development of moral thought
valuable history because the subsequent Qin emperor destroyed most writings from the
Period of Warring States as a possible challenge to his authority
steppe nomads
nomadic peoples that built pastoral societies in grassy steppe lands in Central Asia where
lands were too arid to sustain large agricultural societies
their grasses supported large herds of horses, cattle, sheep and goats, and powerful
herding societies developed after the domestication of horses and the introduction of
bronze metallurgy
served as important trade links to agricultural societies to the east and west, introducing
horses and horse-drawn chariots to regions that didn’t have them in exchange for grains
and textiles, which they couldn’t produce for themselves
became a persistent problem on the frontier of China, where tensions often flared as
nomads launched raids on settled developments
Yangzi River
supported a major shift toward agriculture in China’s southern region
irrigation systems were built to tap its large volume of water flow during the Shang and
Zhou dynasties, which boosted population
Chapter 6
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Mesoamerica
the name for a region that stretches from central Mexico to northern Honduras
a complex civilization arose there around 1200 BCE, independent of outside influences
Olmecs
the “mother civilization” of Central America, existing c. 1200-400 BCE
agricultural surpluses included corn, beans and squash – foods unknown in the “Old
World” – and historians now believe an extensive trading network thrived from what is
now Mexico City to Honduras
the Olmec homeland featured numerous streams and small rivers (which periodically
flooded and provided fertile soil for farming), but the region’s lush jungle environment
and heavy rainfall is a stark contrast to the major river valleys where civilizations first
emerged in Eurasia and Africa
the Olmecs were polytheistic, carved out Colossal Heads (up to 9 feet tall and weighing
20 tons each – no small feat considering they had no large draft animals) presumably in
homage to their authoritarian leaders, and apparently had a social structure indicated by
clothing and ornaments (i.e., the more elaborate the dress and decoration, the higher the
social class)
influenced later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya
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worshipped a variety of nature gods; Olmec sculptures prominently depict a half-human,
half-jaguar spirit, which may have been a powerful rain god
developed a writing system and calendar, but in the absence of metal technology,
fashioned knives and such from obsidian
Maya
heirs to the Olmecs, from about 300 to 900 CE this civilization occupied a region in
southern Mexico that included the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and
El Salvador
Mayan civilization was a collection of numerous city-states or kingdoms
Mayan society featured kings and ruling families at the top, and a large class of priests
who maintained an elaborate calendar and were the keepers of the society’s knowledge of
writing, astronomy and mathematics
merchants traded mostly in exotic or luxury goods (rare animal skins, cacao beans, finely
crafted works of art) and served a political role as ambassadors to neighboring lands
understood astronomy well enough to accurately predict eclipses of the sun and moon,
and developed a solar-year calendar of 365.242 days (just 17 seconds shorter than
modern calculations) that governed the agricultural cycle … and developed a separate
260-day ritual calendar that governed daily affairs
Developed the most flexible and sophisticated American system of writing that included
ideograms and symbols for syllables
Built tiered temples similar in design to Egyptian pyramids and Mesopotamian ziggurats
The Mayans began to desert their cities in the 800s, and this great civilization died out for
reasons that are not clear ... possible explanations include epidemic disease, invasions
from outsiders, ecological collapse and earthquakes
Popol Vuh
Mayan creation myth that held that the gods had created human beings out of maize and
water (thus reflecting, like eastern societies, the central role of agriculture in their lives)
ritual bloodletting
a Mayan practice aimed at pleasing the gods, who expected honor and reverence from
their human subjects
the shedding of human blood was believed to guarantee rain for their crops of maize
some bloodletting rituals centered on war captives who, before decapitation, were
lacerated or removed of the tips of their fingers … but sometimes voluntary shedding of
royal blood through self-sacrifice was practiced, showing the depth of Maya convictions
Maya ball game
inherited from the Olmecs
used an 8-inch ball of solid baked rubber and stone-paved courts
two men or teams of men would compete to force the ball through rings without using
their hands
apparently wildly popular, played for sporting purposes and sometimes with wagering,
but it also figured into political and religious affairs
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high-ranking captives were sometimes forced to play, with the loser really losing big:
alongside some ball courts were skull racks that bore the decapitated heads of losing
players
Austronesian peoples
seafaring peoples from southeast Asia, speaking Austronesian languages whose modern
linguistic relatives include Malayan, Indonesian, Filipino and Polynesian
began exploring Oceania in large canoes equipped with outriggers for stabilization on the
open waters of the south Pacific, by 3000 BCE visiting the northern coast of New Guinea
introduced agriculture and herding to the region
further migrations brought Austronesian peoples to Vanuatu and New Caledonia by 1500
BCE … to Fiji by 1300 BCE … to Tonga and Samoa by 1000 BCE … to Tahiti and the
Marquesas by the late centuries of the first millennium BCE … to Hawaii by the early
centuries CE … Easter Island by 300 CE and the large islands of New Zealand by 700
CE
Lapita peoples
the earliest Austronesian migrants to sail out into the Pacific Ocean and establish
settlements in Pacific islands
between about 1500 and 500 BCE maintained communication and exchange networks
over a large region of Oceania, but thereafter the trade networks fell into disuse, probably
because various Lapita settlements ahd grown large enough that they could supply their
own needs and concentrate on the development of their own societies
hierarchal chiefdoms were established, with leadership passed from chief to eldest son
over time the chiefly and aristocratic classes became so entrenched and powerful they
regarded themselves as divine or semi-divine, prohibiting common subjects from even
gazing directly at them
Period 2: c. 600 BCE – c. 600 CE
Chapter 7
53.
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Cyrus
Persia’s first ruler, 550-530 BCE
established the Persian practice of ruling in a tolerant, practical manner (e.g., showed
respect to conquered Babylonians by having his son crowned king in accordance with
native traditions)
Darius
ruled Persia for 36 years (522-486 BCE)
extended Persian control eastward to Indus Valley and westward into Europe.
put forts in Thrace (modern-day northeast Greece and Bulgaria) and by 500 BCE on
doorstep of Greece
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56.
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developed maritime routes and completed a canal linking Red Sea with the Nile.
presided over vast empire with multitude of ethnic groups and different forms of political
and social organization.
is considered a second founder (after Cyrus) of the Persian Empire because of the
innovative organizational structure he imposed
Persepolis
Persia’s magnificent capital, which served as an administrative center and, more
importantly, a monument to the grandeur of the dynasty
satrap
a governor, usually related or connected by marriage to the royal Persian family, who
ruled one of the empire’s 20 provinces
satraps ruled locally, were tolerant of each subject peoples’ traditions, and had much
autonomy … but inspectors (i.e., spies) were sent out to be the “King’s Eyes and Ears”
and ensure the loyalty of the local officials
among most important duties of the satraps: collect and send tribute (i.e., gold and silver)
to the king
Royal Road
Persia’s famous Royal Road was constructed to facilitate fast communication across
distant parts of the empire
the road promoted trade, which in turn helped hold the empire together
1,677 miles long, with 111 post or relay stations and side roads branching off to distant
parts of the empire
relay stations were equipped with fresh horses for the king’s messengers, who could
cover the entire length of the road in seven days if necessary … but normal travel by
caravan could take up to three months
Persian Wars
pitted Persia against the Greeks, who in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE viewed the
much larger Persian Empire as the great enemy
their conflict was a decisive historical event across two centuries for the Greeks, but the
Persians were probably more concerned about events further east
the ultimate outcome, however, was profoundly important for the eastern Mediterranean
and western Asia
the notion of an East-West dichotomy traces to the Greek tradition
Greek city-states united against their mutual enemy and were able, despite heavy losses,
to hold Persia to a stalemate, which allowed the Greeks to maintain control of the Aegean
Sea and set the stage for an era of peace and prosperity, which is often called the Golden
Age of Pericles
Lydians
conquered by Cyrus the Great, but the Lydians are notable in world history because they
were the first to coin money … an idea the Persians and others then took up, enabling a
monetary system of consistent prices and the accumulation of vast wealth through
savings
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Zarathustra
Zarathustra was the founder of Zoroastrianism
said to have been a priest, he became sick of the ritualistic sacrifices and went to start his
own teaching
Zoroastrianism
a Persian religion called Zoroastrianism, founded on the teachings of the prophet
Zoroaster, who may have lived anytime between 1700 BCE and 500 BCE (generally
regarded as a historical figure and sometimes referred to as Zarathustra)
Zoroastrianism was one of the great religions of the ancient world and is still practiced
today (the relatively few followers are mostly in Iran and India).
it may have exerted a major influence on Judaism, and later Christianity and Islam
God and the Devil, Heaven and Hell, angels and demons, reward and punishment, the
Messiah and the End of Time … all appear to be legacies of this belief system
Chapter 8
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Confucius
a Chinese scholar who lived from 551 to 479 BCE and wanted to restore the order and
moral living of earlier times
disciples collected his words in the Analects
his doctrine of duty and public service became central to Chinese society and politics,
and it also influenced Korea and Japan
Most important concepts: Ren – appropriate feelings (sense of humanity, kindness,
benevolence); Li – correct actions (sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to
elders); Xiao – filial piety, or respect for family obligation
Confucius believed that administrators could rule through enlightened leadership,
modeling these traits for the larger society
Order is achieved when people know their proper role and relationship to others: 1. Ruler
to subject. 2. Father to son. 3. Husband to wife. 4. Older brother to younger brother. 5.
Friend to friend.
Confucius drew a parallel between the family and the state: family hierarchy – father at
the top, sons next, then wives and daughters in order of age; state hierarchy – ruler at the
top, public officials as the sons, common people as the women
Confucianism is an ethical belief system – a political and social philosophy – not a
religion
it arose within the unique culture of China, so its influence remained there (and in
surrounding regions in East Asia) … but its flexibility was key (i.e., Buddhists could
accept Confucianism, too)
Mencius
The most learned man of his day and the main spokesman for the Confucian school.
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Through the Warring States period he traveled in China giving advice to rulers on
political issues.
Strongly believed that human nature was basically good
Placed special value on the virtue ren.
Daoism
belief system founded in China believed to have been founded by Laozi in the sixth
century BCE
literal translation of the Dao: the way, the way of nature, or the way of the cosmos.
humans should exist in harmony
Legalism
along with Confucianism and Daoism, one of the three major belief systems to emerge
during China’s “Axial Age,” which occurred during the Warring States Period of the late
Zhou Dynasty
authoritarian political philosophy
human nature is essentially wicked and people can be kept in line only if compelled by
prospect of severe punishment, instituted by a strong central government run by an
absolute ruler
practical matters sustained society: farmers and fighters were the ideal professions
basis of the unified Qin dynasty, but resentment of its harshness led to wider acceptance
later of Confucianism and Daoism
Qin dynasty
in the second half of the third century BCE, the Qin (pronounced “chin,” from which we
get China) state of the Wei (way) Valley emerged victorious from the Warring States
Period and created China’s first empire
lasted just 15 years (221-206 BCE) but was important because it set the stage for a new
dynasty, the Han (hahn), which ruled China from 206 BCE to 220 CE … beginning an
imperial tradition of remarkably unified political and cultural heritage that lasted into the
early 20th century
Qin Shihuangdi
the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty was none other than Qin Shihuangdi
he ruled his empire as a stern, iron-fisted Legalist and through a centralized bureaucracy
burned books (philosophy, ethics, history, literature … exempting only books on
medicine, fortune-telling and agriculture) and eliminated rivals to his power
with his policy of centralization, he importantly standardized the laws, currencies,
weights, and measures of many different regions of China
mandated the use of a standardized script for Chinese writing, which allowed people
across linguistic boundaries to communicate in writing while still speaking different
languages in their daily lives
viewed merchants as parasites  severely restricted and heavily taxed private commerce,
and monopolized vital industries like mining, wine making and distribution of salt
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although later rulers denounced the overly authoritarian Legalism practiced by the Qin
and instead enthroned Confucianism as the new state orthodoxy, they still kept key tenets
of Legalism to administer the empire and control behavior among subjects
Tomb of the First Emperor
Shihuangdi was buried in a tomb with more than 15,000 terracotta soldiers to protect him
after death
excavated in the 1970s, the life-size terracotta sculptures include magnificently detailed
soldiers, horses and weapons … and the grand scale on which this was done further
suggests the first emperor’s power to command massive Chinese resources
Han dynasty
in 202 BCE, Liu Bang (LEE-oo bahng) outlasted his rivals in civil war (following the
Shihuangdi and the fall of the Qin dynasty) and declared himself the first emperor of the
Han Dynasty, which – except for a brief interruption between 9 and 23 CE – endured for
more than 400 years
a contemporary of the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana, the Han dynasty is so
closely associated with the advancement of Chinese civilization that even today the
Chinese sometimes refer to themselves as “the people of Han” and their language as “the
language of Han”
intensive agriculture (needed to feed increasingly large populations in China’s capital
cities) spread into the Yangzi River Valley  canals were built to connect the Yangzi
with the Yellow River to the north so southern crops could reach northern capital cities
main tax to fund government was percentage of a peasant family’s annual harvest;
surplus grains also stored by government to be sold at reasonable prices during harvest
shortages
Chinese census figures: 2 CE  12 million households, 60 million people (estimated to
be a trebling of the population since the beginning of the Han dynasty); but 140 CE  10
million households, 49 million people … vast majority living in east, beginning to shift
demographically from the Yellow River Valley and North China Plain to the Yangzi
River Valley in the south
every able-bodied man donated one month of labor annually for public works projects –
building palaces, temples, roads, fortifications, canals … working on imperial estates or
in mines
the state also demanded two years of service to the military
Han Chinese gradually expanded, bringing into new regions their social organization,
values, language and other cultural practices at the expense of the ethnic groups they
displaced or absorbed
the Han continued the Qin system of selecting government officials on the basis of merit
rather than birth  idea is to ensure competence among bureaucrat administrators.
in 165 BCE, the first known civil service examination was given to candidates for
positions in the bureaucracy – and according to tradition, an academy for training future
civil servants in the tenets of Confucianism was soon set up and serving as many as
30,000 students
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in theory, young men from any class could rise in the state hierarchy through merit … but
in practice, sons of the gentry had an advantage in that they were most likely to afford
and receive necessary educational prerequisites (hence, emergence of scholar-gentry)
Han emperors allied themselves with the gentry – the class next in wealth below the
aristocrats – so as to limit the political influence of the rural aristocracy, which was a
threat to their centralized rule
these moderately prosperous and often educated landowners were like the Roman equites
Augustus favored  made government more efficient
still, the alliance with the gentry did not prevent the recurrence of economic inequities
that characterized the last years of the Zhou: As the population exploded, average size of
an individual farm plot shrank to 1 acre, barely enough for survival  many peasants
eventually forced to sell their land, become tenant farmers … and the land increasingly
came to be concentrated in powerful landed clans that often owned thousands of acres
worked by tenants and mustered their own military forces to bully free farmers into
becoming tenants
although these economic difficulties would eventually be a primary reason for the fall of
the Han dynasty, in general the era was productive and prosperous.
despite viewing private commerce with outright disdain and merchants generally as
parasites, trade began to flourish along what came to be called the Silk Roads – the
overland caravan routes leading westward into Central Asia and ultimately linking China
with India and the Mediterranean
by the Han era the Chinese were technologically superior to all other civilizations:
innovations included techniques for making steel, paper and silk … and inventions
including the crossbow, watermill, wheelbarrow, a two-bladed plow, the sternpost rudder
and fore-and-aft rigging on ships
for a time the Han government ran huge silk mills, competing with private weavers in
making a luxurious cloth that was increasingly a high-demand product as far away as
Rome
the government established monopolies on the mining and distribution of salt, the forging
of iron, the minting of coins and the brewing of alcohol
Confucian ethics stressed the impropriety of women participating in public life
several factors led to the fall of the Han Empire in 220 CE: 1) the cost of defending the
frontier. 2) factional intrigues within the ruling clan. 3) official corruption and
inefficiency. 4) the ambitions and influence of rural warlords, independent of imperial
control, who emerged from the large landed estate owners. 5) the breakdown of military
conscription, which forced the government to turn to foreign soldiers and officers lacking
loyalty to the Han state. 6) uprisings of hungry and desperate peasants
Han Wudi
the “Martial Emperor,” who ruled the Han dynasty from 141 to 87 BCE … his long and
energetic reign explains much of the dynasty’s success
relied on Legalist principles to build an enormous bureaucracy and expand the empire
to solve the problem of recruiting qualified people for government posts, he established
an imperial university to provide a uniform system of public education
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the university based its instruction on the tenets of Confucianism out of necessity: it was
the only Chinese belief system developed enough to establish a curriculum
initial enrollment began at 3,000 students but rose to more than 30,000 students during
the later Han dynasty
policy of imperial expansion led to invasions of northern Vietnam and Korea (which then
had to pay tribute to Han China) and battles with the Xiongnu nomads
Xiongnu
nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia who spoke a Turkish language and
presented a large problem to the Chinese on their frontier
these nomads had lethal archery skills from horseback and were often militarily more
than a match for the Chinese: when peaceful trade broke down, they would raid settled
villages and take what they wanted
early Han rulers tried to buy them off with gifts of silk, rice, alcohol and money – to no
avail
in the end, continuous military vigilance along the frontier burdened Han finances and
worsened the economy
filial piety
Chinese moralists sought to enhance the authority of patriarchal family heads by
emphasizing the importance of two things – 1) women’s subordination to their menfolk,
and 2) filial piety, which is the idea that children should obey and honor their parents
this social norm is mirrored in the larger Chinese society as citizens are expected to
similarly obey and honor other superiors and political authorities
silk textiles
China’s most valuable export commodity was silk, the making of which – sericulture –
was a closely guarded state secret for millennia dating back as far as the Neolithic era
paper
hugely important to subsequent world history, the manufacture of paper was an
innovation of Chinese craftsmen of the early Han dynasty
in earlier times, Chinese scribes had written mostly on bamboo strips and silk fabrics but
also inscribed messages on oracle bones and bronze … then some time prior to 100 BCE
craftsmen began to fashion hemp, bark and textile fibers into sheets of paper, which was
less expensive than silk and easier to write on, thus encouraging more writing,
scholarship and literature
Yellow Turban Uprising
a huge peasant revolt that raged throughout China and tested the resilience of the Han
state in the second century CE
rebels wore distinctive headgear, thus the “Yellow Turban” moniker
outgrowth of the inequities of land distribution … rebels were desperate peasants with
few opportunities to improve their lot but full of resentment toward the wealthy classes
living in relative luxury
Chapter 9
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77.
78.
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Mauryan dynasty
First state to bring centralized, unified government to most of the Indian subcontinent,
324-184 BCE
founded by Chandragupta Maurya when he conquered then expanded the kingdom of
Magadha, which had a wealth derived from agriculture, iron mines and its strategic
location astride trade routes of the eastern Ganges Basin
Mauryan India was characterized by a strong military – with infantry, cavalry, chariot
and elephant divisions – and royal control of mines, shipbuilding and arms manufacturing
an extensive trade network – anchored by cotton, a key Indian export – stretched all the
way to Mesopotamia and the eastern parts of the Roman Empire
taxes equal to one-fourth of the value of an annual harvest funded Mauryan kings and
government, administrated by relatives and associates in districts based on traditional
ethnic boundaries
standard coinage fostered support for the government and military throughout the empire
and promoted trade
Chandragupta Maurya
founder of the Mauryan dynasty, who may have been inspired by Alexander the Great’s
foray into northwestern India (the Punjab region) in 326 BCE
Kautilya
Chandragupta’s advisor
wrote the Arthashastra, which was a manual offering detailed instructions on the uses of
power and the principles of the government, including the methods of administering the
realm, overseeing trade and agriculture, collecting taxes, maintaining order, conducting
foreign relations, and waging war
advised Chandragupta to make abundant use of spies and pursue a foreign policy
whereby “the enemy of my enemy is my friend”
Ashoka
best known of the Mauryan rulers, who reigned from 269 to 232 BCE and led the dynasty
to its greatest heights
Ashoka was a great warrior as a young man but later became sickened by the brutality of
war
After hundreds of thousands of people were killed, wounded or deported during his
conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka converted to Buddhism and preached nonviolence,
morality, moderation and religious tolerance
until the time of the Mauryans, Aryan buildings were made of wood … but stone artisans
arriving from the defeated Persian Empire were put to work by Ashoka in building three
main types of religious structures: the pillar, the stupa and the rock chamber (carved out
of mountainside cliffs and resembling Roman basilicas in the West)
ten polished sandstone pillars remain standing today from the many erected during
Ashoka’s reign
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erected alongside roads to commemorate the events in the Buddha’s life and mark
pilgrim routes to holy places, they weighed up to 50 tons and rose more than 30 feet,
topped with a carved capital, usually depicting lions uttering the Buddha’s message
the inscriptions on Ashoka’s so-called Rock and Pillar Edicts constitute the earliest
decipherable Indian writing
in the half century following Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire weakened and
collapsed, giving way to a succession of dominant foreign powers ruling in the northwest
(present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan), who extended some influence east and
south
despite political fragmentation during the five centuries following the Mauryan era (the
eastern Ganges reverted back to a hodgepodge of small principalities), economic, cultural
and intellectual development remained dynamic, just as in archaic Greece and Warring
States China
despite political fragmentation during the five centuries following the Mauryan era (the
eastern Ganges reverted back to a hodgepodge of small principalities), economic, cultural
and intellectual development remained dynamic, just as in archaic Greece and Warring
States China
the network of roads and towns that had sprung up under the Mauryans fostered trade 
Indians became middlemen in the international trade routes (over land and, increasingly,
by sea) linking China, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, East Africa and the
Mediterranean.
with no central government authority, merchant and artisan guilds became politically
powerful and patrons of culture
Gupta Dynasty
(320-550 CE) founded by a man who called himself Chandra Gupta, who was no relation
to the Mauryans, but he was clearly modeling himself after them
also headquartered in the northeast, the Guptas were similar to their Mauryan
predecessors (25% tax on agriculture, monopolies on mining of iron and salt) but not
nearly as capable of imposing their will on people outside the empire’s core
Gupta administrative bureaucracy and intelligence network was smaller, less pervasive
governors of outlying areas free to exploit people
the Guptas maintained power by producing a so-called “theater-state” – they persuaded
others to follow its lead through the splendor and ritualistic ceremony of its capital and
royal court  advertisement for the benefits of association
Gupta rulers supported astronomers, scientists and mathematicians … and Indian
mathematicians around this time came up with one of the world’s great intellectual
achievements – the concept of zero and the place-value system.
the Indian method of arithmetic notation using a base-10 system (with separate columns
for ones, tens, hundreds, etc.) was much more efficient than the numerical systems of the
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans … and has come to be more widely used than even the
alphabet derived from the Phoenicians
the role and status of women deteriorated markedly during the Gupta era, as women were
barred from such things as inheriting property and reading sacred texts, and child brides
were married off as young as 6
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whereas the Mauryans had been Buddhists, the Gupta monarchs were Hindus – though
religiously tolerant, allowing Buddhist pilgrims from Southeast and East Asia to visit the
birthplace of their faith
although a lack of tax revenue to pay its army and the rising power of its regional
governors may have contributed to the fall of the empire, the invasion of White Huns on
the northwestern frontier was the main reason for the final collapse of the Gupta Empire
in 550
Jainism
a religion established around 500 BCE as a challenge to the Vedic order in India
emphasized holiness of the life force animating all living creatures
followers practiced strict nonviolence, wore masks to prevent even the accidental
inhalation of bugs
zealous adherents practiced extreme asceticism (self-denial) and nudity, ate only what
others gave them … eventually died of starvation
less zealous followers, restricted from agriculture by the injunction against killing, lived
in cities and engaged in commerce, banking  no missionaries … today, nearly all 5
million of the world’s Jains live in India, forming one of that country’s wealthiest
communities
Siddartha Gautma
“the Enlightened One,” Indian founder of Buddhism (563-483 BCE)
born into the elite Kshatriya caste (warriors and officials), he eventually gave up the
princely life of his upbringing for the life of a wandering ascetic searching for
enlightenment
after six years of wandering, concluded ascetic life was no more likely than a life of
luxury to produce spiritual insight
decided to adhere to a “Middle Path” of moderation, which he set forth as the “Four
Noble Truths” – the foundation of Buddhism
although Siddhartha accepted idea of reincarnation, he rejected the hierarchal Vedic
social structure (i.e., caste system)
Buddhism
as the Buddha’s message spread – by missionaries and by traders along the Silk Road –
throughout India and into Central, Southeast and East Asia following his death, its own
successes began to subvert the individualistic and essentially atheistic tenets of the
founder (he rejected the panoply of Vedic gods and forbade his followers to worship his
person or image after his death  which is why many Buddhists view Buddhism as a
philosophy rather than a religion)
Buddhist monasteries were established and a hierarchy of Buddhist monks and nuns came
into being
as a major threat to the Vedic order in India, Buddhism led to Hinduism evolving and
absorbing many Buddhist aspects … which eventually led to Buddhism being largely
driven from the land of its birth and becoming a major cultural force elsewhere in Asia
84.
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86.
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88.
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89.
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Dharma
basic doctrine shared by Buddhists of all sects, consisting of the Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path
emphasis on moderate lifestyle characterized by contemplation, thoughtful reflection and
disciplined self-control
Four Noble Truths
1) Life if filled with suffering and sorrow. 2) The cause of all suffering is people’s selfish
desire for the temporary pleasures of this world. 3) The way to end all suffering is to end
all desires. 4) The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the
Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desire and self-denial
Eightfold Path
the Eightfold Path consists of right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right meditation
by following the Eightfold Path, anyone could reach – either in this lifetime or across
multiple lifetimes – the state of nirvana, the Buddha’s word for the release from
selfishness and pain  perpetual tranquility
Mahayana Buddhism
one of the two large movements of Buddhism
(“the Greater Vehicle”) – Buddha is a godlike deity; other deities appear, including
bodhisattvas (those who’ve achieved enlightenment and are nearing nirvana but choose
to remain on Earth to lead others)
more complicated and ritualistic than Buddha intended, and detractors say it’s too much
like the Hinduism that Buddha disapproved of
Theravada Buddhism
(“the Way of the Elders” or “the Lesser Vehicle”) – Buddha himself is not considered a
god
emphasizes meditation, simplicity, interpretation of nirvana as the renunciation of human
consciousness and of the self
Buddhism in its austere, most authentic form, which may have demanded too much from
most people … but it became the dominant form of Buddhism practiced in Southeast
Asia
Bhagavad Gita
a self-contained portion of the Mahabharata, one of India’s two great epics that is eight
times longer than Greek Iliad and Odyssey and tells the story of a cataclysmic battle
between two sets of cousins quarreling over succession to the throne
based on oral tradition but taking final written form in the last two centuries BCE
supposedly describes events millions of years in the past, but probably reflects conditions
of the early Vedic period when Aryan warrior societies were moving onto the Ganges
Plain
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god Krishna tutors hero Arjuna (who is reluctant to fight own kinsmen) on the necessity
of fulfilling his duty
Hinduism
evolved by around the fourth century CE from its origins in the Aryan Vedic tradition,
adopting aspects of the Dravidian cultures of southern India and elements of Buddhism
world’s third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam, with more than 1 billion
followers
the term Hinduism was imposed by others: Islamic invaders in the 11th century CE
labeled the diverse range of practices they saw in India as Hinduism (“what the Indians
do”)
components include dharma, karma, reincarnation, moksha
closely linked with Hinduism, and reinforced by the ideas of karma and reincarnation, is
the caste system
the world soul, Brahman, sometimes seen as having the personalities of three gods:
Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the protector; and Shiva, the destroyer
reflecting the ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity of India, Hinduism has a vast array
of gods (330 million according to one tradition), sects and local practices
Hindus today are free to choose the deity they worship (interestingly, Vishnu and its
Aryan pedigree is more popular in the north while Shiva is dominant in the Dravidian
south) – or choose none at all; most follow a family tradition that may go back centuries
Hindus are also free to choose among three different paths for achieving moksha, though
with some exceptions only men of top varnas can expect to achieve it in their present life
Arabic numerals
the power and usefulness of India’s base-10 number system we use today was
immediately recognized when it spread to other lands through cultural diffusion
Muslim Arabs and Persians adopted the “Hindi” numerals in the eighth century, and
Europeans later learned of it from them … hence, the misnomer “Arabic” numerals
Chapter 10
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93.
Minoan society
a seafaring people living on the island of Crete and dominating trade in the eastern
Mediterranean from about 2000 to 1400 BCE
influenced by the older civilizations from Mesopotamia and Egypt but evolving their own
unique culture, the Minoans were the first Europeans to have complex political and social
structures, and advanced technologies
had centralized government, monumental building, bronze metallurgy, writing and
recordkeeping (but the writing, called Linear A, hasn’t been deciphered yet)
scholars believe Minoan culture died out when they could not recover from natural
disaster (a series of earthquakes, followed by volcanic eruption and possibly a tidal wave)
and possibly a subsequent invasion of another people, the Mycenaean Greeks
Mycenaean society
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the first advanced civilization in Greece
numerous pots excavated from the region would have carried wine and olive oil as
Mycenaean sailors replaced Minoan sailors as a central part of trade in the eastern
Mediterranean
other possible exports: weapons, crafted goods, slaves and mercenary soldiers
trade and piracy were intertwined: the Mycenaeans were tough, warlike, acquisitive 
traded with the strong, took from the weak
their script, Linear B, is recognized as an early form of Greek
more than 4,000 Mycenaean tablets have been unearthed, showing that Mycenaeans ran
an extensive bureaucracy that kept track of people, animals and objects in minute detail;
exercised tight control over the kingdom’s economy; kept records of everything from the
number of chariot wheels in palace rooms and rations paid to textile workers, to the gifts
dedicated to various gods and the ships stationed along the coasts
but they wrote down almost nothing about individuals – not even the name of a single
Mycenaean ruler – and very little about their political and legal systems, social structures,
gender relations or religious beliefs
polis
a Greek city state
fundamental unit of ancient Greece after about 750 B.C.
made up of a city and countryside surrounding it with villages
Greece had hundreds of them, ranging from 50 to 500 square miles of territory and
usually fewer than 10,000 residents (though Athens was much larger)
most had a defensible hilltop acropolis (“top of the city”) that offered refuge in an
emergency
an agora was a gathering place for discussing politics or military matters … which later
evolved into a marketplace
Sparta
Greek city-state that rivaled Athens
an agricultural and highly militaristic region where citizens led austere, highly disciplined
lives (hence the modern expression, “a Spartan existence [or lifestyle]”)
boys taken from their families and put into barracks at age 7, where they would stay until
they reached 30
they were toughened by extreme regimen of discipline, beatings and deprivation –
marching, exercising, fighting, serving the military until they reached 60
effort to maintain equality among citizens  metals and coinage banned, commerce
forbidden
Interestingly, Spartan women had greater freedom and more opportunities – born of
running family estates while husbands were active in military – than women from other
Greek city-states, including Athens
Sparta had best military but rarely flexed its own muscle, practicing a cautious,
isolationist foreign policy
Athens
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ancient Greece’s largest city-state, considered the birthplace of democracy and the
fountainhead of Western culture
a nobleman named Draco in 621 BCE developed a legal code based on idea that all
Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law  first step toward democracy
Pericles
skillful Athenian politician, inspiring speaker, respected general  held popular support
for 32 years during the fifth century BCE, called the “Age of Pericles”
he and political allies took final steps in evolution of Athenian direct democracy (e.g.,
paying salaries to public officials so even those of modest means could hold office)
Athens became a vibrant community of scientists, philosophers, poets, dramatists, artists
and architects during this time
Delian League
a voluntary alliance of Greek city-states created in 477 BCE to fight the threat of Persia
Athens and its naval capabilities was the leader and supplied the military support while
the other city-states provided Athens with financial support
Athens soon came to dominate the other city-states of the Delian League, moving the
capital from Delos to Athens and using military force against its challengers and to
promote its commercial interests
weaker, poorer city-states eventually became resentful when expensive building projects
were undertaken to glorify Athens
Peloponnesian War
Athens and Sparta fought from 431 to 404 BCE
marked by unprecedented brutality, with entire cities destroyed, innocent schoolchildren
killed, war captives murdered, and women and children sold into slavery
Sparta prevailed, but it was also greatly weakened and subsequently became highhanded
with other city-states  ensuing decades brought almost continuous internal conflict
among the Greeks until they were overrun by Philip II of Macedon in the fourth century
BCE
Alexander the Great
son of Philip II of Macedon; came to power at 20 and in a little more than a decade had
amassed an empire stretching from the Mediterranean to Egypt, across Syria and
Palestine, through Persia and as far east as the Punjab region of modern Pakistan.
variously viewed as idealistic visionary, ruthless Machiavellian
warrior hero was Achilles (he kept a copy of Homer’s Iliad under his pillow)
apparently planned to fuse Greeks and easterners  adopted Persian dress, used Persians
as administrators, encouraged soldiers to marry easterners (he had several Iranian wives
with useful royal or aristocratic connections)
Hellenistic Age
the era ushered in by the conquests of Alexander (323-330 BCE)  lands in northeastern
Africa and western Asia “Hellenized,” or profoundly influenced by Greek culture
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Hellenistic sculptors moved toward more emotional and realistic art and away from the
ideal beauty prized by Greek classicism
Alexandria
named after Alexander the Great and located at a strategic place on the western edge of
the Nile delta in Egypt
the foremost center of commerce and cultural vitality in Hellenistic civilization
population: nearly 500,000
attractions: Alexander’s glass coffin, the Pharos (a first-of-its-kind lighthouse), a library
with a half-million papyrus scrolls and a museum for advanced study (dedicated to the
Muses, the Greek goddesses of arts and sciences)
Olympic Games
Held every four years starting around 776 B.C.
Site of Olympic games in area called Olympia where an alter was built for the father of
all Greek gods and goddesses, Zeus.
The Olympic games were held to honor their gods and build strong healthy citizens in
order to strengthen the city-state.
Most famous sport was a race called the stade. Other events included a long-distance
race, wrestling, the long jump, the javelin and the dices throw.
Victors (winners) were given gifts and hailed as heroes.
Socrates
lived in Athens 470-399 BCE
a critic of democracy and of the Sophists (traveling teachers who provided instruction in
logic and public speaking [rhetoric = art of persuasive oratory] to young pupils who could
afford it; questioned traditional values and claimed there was no absolute right or wrong;
Greek masses came to call someone who uses cleverness to distort and manipulate reality
a sophist)
Socrates believed there were absolute truths but encouraged Greeks to challenge
authority and their own beliefs
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Socratic method (questions, questions, questions …)
wise in that he knew that he knew nothing
put on trial (and put to death by drinking hemlock) as an old man for “corrupting the
youth of Athens” and “neglecting the city’s gods” but was really a scapegoat for the
controversial Sophists and several of his aristocratic students who had tried to overthrow
the Athenian democracy
Plato
427-347 BC; Athens, Greece
a student of Socrates
Plato laid out his ideal society in The Republic – not a democracy but organized into
three classes: 1) farmers/artisans, 2) warriors, and 3) ruling class, with the greatest
intellect chosen the philosopher-king
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Plato's philosophic thought dominated Europe for 1,500 years. A school in Athens called
the Academy lasted for 900 years.
Aristotle
with Socrates and Plato, one of the big three classical Greek philosophers
a student at Plato's Academy
once Plato died, he opened his own school in Athens called the Lyceum which would
come to rival the Academy
Aristotle questioned the nature of the world and human belief, thought, and knowledge
his method for arguing according to rules of logic provides the basis of the scientific
method used today
Aristotle's most famous pupil was Alexander the Great
Chapter 11
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plebeians
the common farmers, artisans, and merchants who made up the majority of the Roman
population
inequalities in Roman society led to conflict between the plebeians and the wealthy
patricians … but legal innovations for the lower classes included a set of laws called the
Twelve Tables (450 BCE) that was displayed publicly so patrician officials couldn’t
interpret the law to suit themselves … and the creation of tribunes – new officials drawn
from and elected by the lower classes and who had power to veto, or block, actions of the
Assembly or patrician officials
patricians
the wealthy landowners who held most of the power during the days of the Roman
Republic and Roman Empire
inherited their power and social status, claiming their ancestry gave them authority to
make laws for Rome
citizenship included all male landowners
Roman Republic
the period of classical Roman history when representative democracy was in place (50731 BCE)
in 509 BCE, an aristocratic republic (form of government whose head of state is usually a
president) replaced the Roman monarchy; built Roman forum, a political and civic center
housing temples and public buildings for government business
a republican constitution gave executive duties and power (civil and military) to two
consuls elected for one-year terms by an assembly dominated by the aristocracy
(patricians); a senate dominated the decision-making process
tension developed as interests of the lower class (plebeians) were not represented …
which led to the development of tribunes (consisting of officials elected by plebeians),
which had the right to intervene in all political affairs and veto unjust laws
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in times of civil or military crisis, a dictator was appointed with absolute power for a sixmonth term to restore peace and stability
the republic came to an end following the ascent and then assassination of Julius Caesar,
after which civil war continued until the eventual emergence of the emperor Augustus,
the grandnephew and adopted son of Caesar
from this point forward to the fall of the Roman empire in 476 CE, imperial Rome is
ruled by emperors, good and bad
The Punic Wars
a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage (a Phoenician settlement in
north Africa) between 264 and 146 BCE
at issue was dominance of the western Mediterranean
Rome won despite nearly succumbing to the famous rear-flank invasion led by
Carthaginian general Hannibal, who led his troops along the coasts of Spain and Gaul
(modern-day France) before crossing the Swiss Alps on elephants to attack from the
north
latifundia
In Rome, much like China and Greece, conquered lands fell largely into the hands of
wealthy elites, who organized enormous plantations known as latifundia
enjoying economies of scale and often employing slave labor, owners of latifundia
operated at lower costs than did owners of smaller holdings, who often had to mortgage
their lands or sell out to their wealthier neighbors … which led to social conflict over the
inequities of this land ownership reality
owners of latifundia across the Roman empire tended to concentrate on producing
specific crops for export (e.g., grains from north Africa, olives and grapevines from
Greece, and fruits, nuts and wool fabrics from Syria and Palestine)
Julius Caesar
Rome’s most brilliant military general, who conquered Gaul between 59 and 51 BCE,
giving the Roman empire its first land acquisition in the heartland of Europe
as he gained popularity, Caesar’s rivals urged him to disband his legions and return home
instead, he and his men defied the Senate, crossed the Rubicon River (the southern limit
of his command) and headed for Rome – where he would assume dictatorial power in a
military coup
the year marking the beginning of his perpetual dictatorship was also the year he was
assassinated by members of the Senate, including his friend Marcus Brutus
legacy includes introducing a new “Julian” calendar based on the solar year instead of
moon cycles (extra day every four years) and July named for him
Roman Empire
during the republic, conquered land included Italy, Greece, Syria, Gaul, most of the
Iberian Peninsula, outposts in North Africa and Anatolia (modern-day Turkey); Augustus
then added most of southeastern Europe and most of North Africa and expanded control
in Anatolia and southwest Asia … so at its height, the empire included Britain and all of
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the land surrounding the northern and southern coast of the Mediterranean, from Iberia to
Mesopotamia
as Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors and merchants settled throughout the empire,
Roman culture spread, encouraging the development of local politics and economies and
the growth of cities
this large land mass facilitated trade and communication all around the empire, which
was facilitated by an extensive network of roads designed by Roman engineers
Roman roads were up to 26 feet wide and some stretched for thousands of miles, linking
all parts of the empire with many side roads to transport supplies, goods, soldiers and
postal documents
during the first three centuries CE the empire was “urban” despite the fact that 80% of its
50-60 million people still lived in countryside: empire administered through network of
towns and cities (Rome’s population was perhaps 1 million; some other cities, like
Alexandria and Carthage, had several hundred thousand people; most had far less than
that)
the western half of the empire fell in 476 CE … but the eastern half lived on for another
millennium as the Byzantine Empire, headquartered in Constantinople
the reasons for the fall of the empire can be found on Mr. Rosselle’s PowerPoint on
Rome and Han China, slides 40-41 … and the legacy of the Romans is detailed on slides
42-44
Augustus
after the assassination of Caesar and the conflict that arose, Octavian, Julius Caesar’s
nephew and protégé, rose to power
defeated his rival Mark Antony and in 27 BCE was given the title Augustus, meaning
“exalted one” and hinting at a divine nature for its holder
Augustus – ruthless, patient, frugal, religious and family-oriented (banished his only
child, Julia, from Rome for adultery) – aligned himself with the equites (EH-kwee-tays),
the class of well-to-do Italian merchants and landowners second only to senatorial class
this group became the backbone of the civil service system Augustus instituted: workers
paid to manage affairs of government (grain supply, tax collection, postal system)  key
to stability and smooth functioning of expansive empire.
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Pax Romana
the “Roman peace,” or the golden age of prosperity for the Roman empire that lasted for
more than two centuries and was initiated by the reign of Augustus
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Cicero
(106-43 BCE) noted Roman intellectual; widely regarded as Rome’s greatest statesman
his writings about how a state should be organized would eventually form the foundation
of the educations of the founders of the United States and the basis for constitutions that
govern lives in the West to this day
philosophically associated with Stoicism, which he helped establish as the most
prominent school of moral philosophy in Rome
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his letters and treatises emphasized the individual’s duty to live in accordance with nature
and reason … and to pursue justice as one’s highest public duty
railed against those who sought to accumulate wealth or power through unethical or
illegal means
Jesus of Nazareth
born about the year 4 BCE, Jesus grew up at a time of high tension between Roman
overlords and their Jewish subjects
Jesus was a charismatic Jewish teacher who taught devotion to God and love for fellow
human beings, attracting large crowds and a reputation for wisdom and miraculous
powers, especially the ability to heal the sick
alarmed the Romans because he taught that “the kingdom of God is at hand,” which
Roman administrators took to be a threat to their rule in Palestine
to prevent rebellion, Roman administrators executed Jesus by fixing him to a cross in the
early 30s CE
followers proclaimed that he rose from the dead, calling him “Christ” or “the anointed
one,” the savior who would bring individuals into the kingdom of God
followers also taught that he was the son of God whose sacrifice would offset the sins of
those who had faith in him … their body of writings – accounts of Jesus’ life, reports of
his followers’ works, and letters outlining Christian teachings – gained recognition as the
New Testament, the holy book of the emerging religion of Christianity, which would
eventually grow into the world’s largest religion, with more than 2 billion adherents
Paul of Tarsus
an early persecutor turned convert, he was the follower of Jesus, or Apostle, most
responsible for the early spread of Christianity
widened the appeal of the religion by decreeing that Christians needn’t observe Jewish
diet and circumcision laws, which made it easier to convert Greeks and other non-Jewish
peoples
traveled widely across Roman lands seeking converts, eventually running afoul of the
emperor and suffering execution
Chapter 12
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Indian Ocean Maritime System
a multilingual, multiethnic trading network established by seafarers and extending from
East Africa to southern China and all the lands in between
trade took place in three distinct regions: 1) Chinese and Malays dominated in South
China Sea; 2) Malays and Indians dominated from Southeast Asia to east coast of India;
and 3) Persians and Arabs dominated from west coast of India to the Persian Gulf and
east coast of Africa
identifying specific mariners as Persian, Arab, Indian or Malay obscures the fact that they
were often of a richer cultural mix: coastal areas often became home to a more
cosmopolitan reality as seafarers and merchants took wives in port cities, where their
families became bilingual and bicultural; gone for long stretches, these men then carried
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the influence of the various cultures to which they were exposed to other ports throughout
the region
in contrast to Mediterranean sailors, those in the Indian Ocean basin used triangular
(lateen) sails and normally did without oars; could cover long distances entirely at sea
thanks to monsoon winds; did not establish colonies that maintained contact with their
home cities  distances were greater and contacts less frequent, so trading outposts were
rarely independent of local political powers but sometimes socially distinctive
products in demand from Africa included exotic animals, wood, ivory and the aromatic
resins valued as frankincense and myrrh
pearls came from the Persian Gulf, copper from southeastern Arabia, spices and
manufactured goods from India and Southeast Asia (including pottery transshipped from
China)
despite the diversity of the highly valued items, the overall level of trade would not have
approached that of the more compact Mediterranean until after the classical period (i.e.,
not until 600-1450 CE)
Silk Roads
an extensive overland network of trade routes linking much of Eurasia, from China to the
Mediterranean, and emerging during the classical age of strong empires (c. 600 BCE to
600 CE)
collectively known as the Silk Roads because the high-quality silk from China was one of
the principal commodities exchanged over the roads
although most people did not travel the entire length of the Silk Roads, caravans took
more than four months to traverse the 2,500 miles between the western part of Central
Asia (say Bukhara in modern-day Uzbekistan, east of the Caspian Sea) and the capital
cities along the Yellow River in northeastern China
it was a social system as well as a trading network: ideas spread east and west just as
agricultural products and manufactured goods, which were meant primarily for the
wealthy elite … but sometimes the ideas and customs affected entire societies
cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara grew and flourished in Central Asia, often under
local princes
the Chinese were especially interested in the better breed of horses from the west, but
they also brought in new plants and trees, and food items such as alfalfa, wine grapes,
pistachios, walnuts, sesame, coriander and spinach … while traders heading west from
China brought peaches, apricots, cinnamon, ginger and other spices … and of course silk
cities in Iran during the Sasanid Empire were essentially military installations meant to
secure the safety of long-distance trade
farmers in the Middle East began experimenting with new items from India and China
that would significantly gain in importance over the coming years: cotton, sugar cane,
rice, citrus trees, eggplants and more
the peoples living along the Silk Roads were influenced by the dynamic interplay of
missionaries seeking converts to religions such as Buddhism, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism
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steppe customs, meanwhile, spread to foreign lands: the saddle and later the stirrup –
most likely Central Asian inventions – made mounted warriors very effective  led later
to armored knights in medieval Europe and superior Tang cavalry in China
the spread of epidemic disease was also notably facilitated by this long-distance trade
network
Manichaeism
a missionary religion emphasizing the cosmic struggle between forces of light and
darkness, good and evil
derived as a syncretic blend of Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Buddhism
founded by the prophet Mani (216-272 CE), who regarded Zarathustra as the prophet of
Persia, Buddha the prophet of India and Jesus the prophet of the Mediterranean world
because of the growing interaction of peoples from different societies, facilitated by the
emerging Silk Roads, Mani saw a need for a prophet for all humanity and promoted his
syncretic faith as a way to serve the needs of an increasingly cosmopolitan world
Mani died in chains as a prisoner of the Sasanid emperor, who wanted to use
Zoroastrianism to unify his realm … and Manichaeans began to be persecuted in the
Roman empire, but the faith survived among nomadic Turkish peoples
Diocletian
Roman emperor who took power in 284 CE, ruling for 21 years and bringing the empire
back from the brink of destruction
set fixed prices for goods and froze many people into their jobs to ensure adequate supply
of labor in key areas (which worked short-term but contributed long-term to common
view that government was oppressive, no longer deserving of loyalty).
divided the sprawling, difficult-to-manage empire into Greek-speaking East (Greece,
Anatolia, Syria and Egypt) and Latin-speaking West (Italy, Gaul, Britain and Spain),
taking the far wealthier East for himself and appointing a co-ruler for the West
Constantine
reigned 306-337 CE, winning the struggle for power after Diocletian resigned in 305
continued many of his predecessor’s coercive policies
issued Edict of Milan, which in 313 finally made Christianity an approved religion of the
emperor (Theodosius would later make it the empire’s official religion in 380)
reunited entire empire under his own rule by 324 but moved the capital from Rome to
Byzantium (which he renamed Constantinople and is now Istanbul), an easily defendable
city strategically located on the Bosporus strait linking the Mediterranean and Black seas
after the fall of the western half of the Roman empire in 476, the Byzantine empire would
live on until 1453
Germanic migrations
Germanic peoples had migrated from their homelands in northern Europe and lived on
the eastern and northern borders of the Roman empire since the second century CE
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most notable of these were the Visigoths from Scandinavia and Russia, who settled,
adopted agriculture and adapted elements of Roman culture and law to suit their own
needs
the Romans discouraged the settlement of Germanic peoples within the empire,
preferring they remain outside the imperial borders as a buffer state
but then in the mid-fifth century CE the warrior-king Attila organized the Huns (nomads
from central Asia and cousins of the Xiongnu) into a virtually unstoppable military
fighting force that invaded Hungary, menaced the Roman frontiers in the Balkans, and
attacked Gaul and northern Italy … all of which led the Germanic peoples living in those
areas to stream en masse into the Roman empire in search of refuge
this hastened the end of the Roman empire: Visigoths stormed and sacked Rome in 410
and by the middle of the fifth century the western part of the Roman empire was in
shambles