Download SELF-STUDY QUESTIONS-I

SELF-STUDY QUESTIONS
** YOU SHOULD HAVE A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF THE LABS!! **
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
1. What are the primary organ systems of the body? What are the basic functions of each?
2. What is the “internal environment”? Why is it so important?
3. How would you define a “regulated” variable? Think of a couple of things in the body
that are regulated. How does this regulation occur?
4. Define homeostasis in your own words (that is, as if you’re explaining it to a friend that’s
a non-science person).
5. Know how a negative feedback loop works, and be able to use it to describe how a
variable is controlled. Why is it called negative feedback? What’s positive feedback,
and does such a thing exist? How does it work?
6. What is the difference between an independent and dependent variable? When making a
graph, which should go on the X axis?
7. Why is maintaining a stable internal environment so important?
8. How would you define a tissue? What are the four basic tissue types, and how would you
distinguish them from each other? For each type, you should be able to give at least two
examples, and know which are “excitable” tissues.
9. What are the major differences between the fluid in the cells and that outside of them?
10. Describe the make up of the plasma membrane. Why is its structure considered
“dynamic”?
11. What do proteins within the cell membrane do? If membrane proteins are somehow
altered how is cell function affected?
12. Describe the three types of cell junctions and why they are important. Where might you
find each of them?
13. When are membrane receptors necessary? What are some of the things that might occur
after a substance binds to a receptor?
14. What’s the difference between active and passive transport? What’s facilitated diffusion?
15. How is the body water divided? Where is the majority of body fluid located?
DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
1. What’s the driving force for diffusion? How do the various factors in Fick’s Law affect
the rate of diffusion?
2. Define osmolarity, osmotic pressure, osmotically active particle.... What makes a particle
“osmotically active”?
3. How do osmotically active solutions “work” (in other words, how do they manage to
move water, and in which direction will water move?)
4. How does tonicity differ from osmolarity? How can a solution be iso-osmotic and
hypotonic?
5. How is primary active transport different from secondary active transport? Give an
example of each type.
6. What is potential energy? What two types of potential energy can ions have? Can noncharged particles have both of these too? Why/why not?
POTENTIALS/NEURONS
1. Define an equilibrium potential. Is it a voltage or something else?
2. How can you calculate the value of an equilibrium potential?
3. What is the equilibrium potential for K? What about for Na? If you change the
extracellular concentration of one of these ions, what --if anything--changes?
4. Define the resting membrane potential. How is it different from an equilibrium potential?
What’s the role of permeability in determining the RMP?
5. What ion has the greatest influence on the RMP? Why?
6. At the RMP, what is the net force on K? On Na? How did you figure that out?
7. How is an action potential different from a graded potential? Can you draw each of them
(with each axis labeled appropriately!)?
8. At the peak of the action potential, what is the net force on K? On Na?
9. What (specifically) happens when the membrane reaches threshold potential?
10. Describe the absolute and relative refractory periods. What’s the difference? What’s
going on with the Na channels in each case?
11. How is the action potential propagated down the membrane? What makes it go faster?
12. What is the sequence of events involved in a synapse? Which ion channels are voltage
gated and which are chemically gated?
13. How is an EPSP different from an IPSP in terms of ion movement and overall membrane
effect?
14. If the post-synaptic membrane is made more permeable to K+, how is signal transmission
affected?
15. What can cause a chemically-gated channel to open? What about a mechanically-gated
or voltage-gated channel?
16. How can the same neurotransmitter have different effects in different places?
17. What are the primary neurotransmitters discussed, and where are they primarily found?
18. How does spatial summation differ from temporal summation? Give examples of each.
19. How might convergence/divergence affect signal transmission?
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. What structures make up the Central Nervous System? Identify the structures that protect the
CNS – how does their protection work?
2. How is the Nervous System divided? What’s under voluntary control? Compare the
functions of the nervous and endocrine systems.
3. Diagram the stretch reflex. How does a reflex work? Can you control a reflex? Might a
reflex involve higher brain centers?
4. What is the difference between gray matter and white matter?
5. How would you compare and contrast the Somatic and Autonomic nervous systems?
6. How does CSF compare to plasma? If a substance is injected into the blood, will it enter the
brain tissue?
7. Why is parallel processing advantageous?
8. Frogs that are pithed have their thalamus damaged immediately by the pithing instrument –
why is this more humane?
9. Know the significance of the brain areas discussed in the workbook or lecture.
10. Describe the different sensory receptor types and what they respond to…
11. Describe cerebral lateralization and its significance.
12. Where would you likely find large receptive fields in the body? What about small ones?
13. Compare/contrast a receptor potential, a graded potential, and an end-plate potential
(muscle).
14. How does labeled line coding help the brain interpret sensory stimuli?
15. Describe some of the ways that the brain interprets where a stimulus is coming from and how
intense it is
16. Know what types of reactions are mediated by the sympathetic nervous system and what
types are mediated by the parasympathetic.
17. What is the neuron sequence for the ANS? What neurotransmitters are involved?
18. Cholinergic vs. Adrenergic receptors?
19. Why is the adrenal gland considered a branch of the SNS?
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
1. What are the primary differences among the different muscle types?
2. How does an end plate potential differ from a typical synapse? Neurotransmitter?
3. Know the basics of excitation-contraction coupling. You should be able to compare and
contrast skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle.
4. How is ATP used during a muscle contraction? Where does it come from? Short term
vs. long term production differences?
5. Muscle twitches (both skeletal and cardiac): how does tetany occur?
6. Influences on total muscle tension (“how do you get a bigger contraction?”) What’s a
motor unit? Characteristics of skeletal muscle contraction: isotonic vs. isometric, etc.
7. Muscle fiber types: Differences should all make sense if you consider the function of the
muscle and the energy requirements for that type of function.
8. What factors contribute to muscle fatigue?
THE HEART
1. Can you trace the flow of blood through the various chambers of the heart? What are the
different valves called? Where would you find oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood?
2. What causes the blood to move from one place to another?
3. What is the difference between hydrostatic and hydraulic pressure? Which is more
similar to the CV system?
4. What are the major determinants of blood flow?
5. What factors influence resistance? Which of these is most important to us as
physiologists? Why?
6. What is the function of the chordae tendinae?
7. What is pacemaker activity and how do the autorhythmic cells do it?
8. How does the action potential of the cardiac muscle differ from the “normal” action
potential? How does the difference benefit the function of the heart?
9. How do cardiac muscle cells create graded contractions?
10. Why are intercalated disks important features of cardiac muscle?
11. Why is the SA node the primary pacemaker of the heart? Bradycardia vs. Tachycardia?
12. How do we know there is parasympathetic activity to the SA node at rest?
13. What do the different waves of the ECG represent? Does depolarization of an area
always precede that area’s contraction?
14. Know the following terms for the cardiac cycle:
Systole
Diastole
End-Diastolic Volume
Stroke Volume
End-Systolic Volume
15. What causes the valves to open? What causes them to close?
16. When does isovolumetric contraction occur? Why is it necessary? What about
isovolumetric relaxation?
17. When does most of the ventricular filling occur? Why is this a good thing?
18. How do the right and left sides of the heart compare to each other?
19. What do the words extrinsic and intrinsic mean?
20. What is the Frank-Starling law of the heart? Why does it occur (what’s the mechanism)?
21. What does the Parasympathetic Nervous System do to the heart? How does that affect
CO? Outline the effects of the Sympathetic Nervous System on CO.
22. What causes the heart sounds? What are some possible causes of heart murmurs?
23. What are the consequences of valvular insufficiencies?
24. How can venous return be enhanced? What effect does this have on CO? Why?
25. Describe a positive inotropic agent and its effect on the heart.
26. What is the term for an increase in the diameter of a blood vessel? How about a
decrease?
27. How would you distinguish between arteries and arterioles? What is unique about the
structure of a capillary?
BLOOD VESSELS
1. What are the determinants of blood flow? (Think of the equation for flow)
2. How does an increase in resistance affect blood flow? What about an increase in the
pressure difference from the beginning to the end of the tube?
3. Why are the arteries considered conductance vessels? Why is their elasticity
important?
4. Why is the mean arterial pressure not ½ of systolic and ½ of diastolic?
5. What is vascular tone? Why is it important to have this tone?
6. How does a buildup of metabolites change blood flow into an area?
7. What type of change in vessel diameter would you expect with histamine release?
What about the application of cold to an area?
8. How does active hyperemia differ from reactive hyperemia?
9. In a fight or flight situation, describe how blood flow is redistributed to “crucial”
areas.
10. How does blood pressure in the capillaries influence exchange across capillary walls?
11. What are some possible causes of edema?
12. Why do veins have valves?
13. What factors may influence venous return? How does an increase in venous return
affect CO? What about MAP?
14. What are the determinants of MAP? How are each of these factors affected by the
activity of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems?
15. If you hemorrhage, what are some of the immediate responses by the body to
maintain MAP? What are the sensors and effectors involved in the homeostatic
loops?
16. What organ is most responsible for long-term blood pressure regulation? What does
it do that would affect MAP?
17. What makes up most of your blood? What is the primary function of the RBC’s?
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. What is anatomic dead space? Why is it dangerous to increase it too much?
2. How does the conducting zone differ from the respiratory zone?
3. How does the partial pressure gradient affect gas exchange? What about the surface
area / thickness factors on the alveoli?
4. Why is surfactant so important? Where is it produced?
5. What exactly IS surface tension anyway?
6. Explain Boyle’s Law and how it relates to pressure changes within the lung.
7. You should be able to describe the processes of inspiration and expiration step by step
(including when and how air flows from one place to another)
8. Is expiration normally an active or a passive process? Can it be either?
9. How does asthma affect respiration? Emphysema?
10. What are some of the factors that influence gas exchange at the lungs? Which of
these might change with hypoxia? How about pulmonary edema? Emphysema?
Exercise?
11. How does exercise affect hemoglobin unloading? What’s the mechanism (how does
it do this)?
12. How does hyperventilation differ from hyperpnea?
13. What is the primary driving force behind ventilation (what “makes you breathe”)?
14. What is the level to which PO2 has to fall in order to stimulate the chemoreceptors?
If you cut the nerve supply from the peripheral chemoreceptors, would you be
sensitive to falling levels of PO2? Why or why not?
15. What type of effect would hyperventilation have on blood pH? What about
hypoventilation?
ACID-BASE BALANCE
1. What is the normal pH of the blood? The level of _______ determines the pH.
2. Why is it important to regulate blood pH?
3. List the four main types of acid-base disturbances, and give an example of how each
might occur.
KNOW HOW TO WORK THE DAVENPORT CURVE!!!!
YOUR FRIEND, THE KIDNEY
1. What are the primary functions of the kidney? Describe the ways in which it is
involved in maintaining cardiovascular function. How about acid-base balance?
2. What does “freely filtered” mean? What kinds of things are freely filtered?
3. How exactly are things filtered out of the blood? How would a change in blood
pressure in the glomerulus affect this process?
4. Describe the activation of the RAA system and the effects it has on the body.
5. Why would renin be released in the first place?
6. Where does the great majority of reabsorption take place? Does this amount change
much in situations of dehydration or overhydration?
7. Is most reabsorption active or passive? How does it work?
8. Where does the concentration of urine take place? How does ADH play a role in
this?
9. What does aldosterone do? When might it be advantageous to have aldosterone
released?
10. Where does ADH come from? Does it make sense that it’s made there? Why?
11. Describe how an osmotic diuretic might work.
12. Describe the kidney functions that would take place following severe hemorrhage.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. What are some of the major organs of the digestive system?
2. What are accessory organs? Give some examples.
3. Where does the digestion of most nutrients take place? Where does the absorption of
most nutrients take place?
4. What enzymes break down protein and where are they located? (do the same for
carbohydrates and fats)
5. Which nutrients will slow gastric emptying to the greatest degree? Why?
6. What are the major functions of the liver? Think of what might occur with each of
these if the liver were to be damaged.
7. Draw the anatomical set-up of the liver (the lobule). What structures make up the
portal triad?
8. What’s the point of bile? What does it do for you?
9. What does “enterohepatic circulation” refer to? Why is it important?
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. How would you define a hormone? Describe some basic differences between the
nervous and endocrine systems
2. What is a tropic hormone? Give some examples of tropic hormones.
3. Describe how protein-based hormones differ from steroid hormones.
4. Describe the differences between the anterior and posterior pituitary
5. You should be able to list the hormones of both pituitary areas and briefly describe
their actions