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English I Grammar Notes, North Surry High School
Table of Contents
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Tips for Success: How to Find the Subject(s) and Verb(s) of a Sentence …..……………….1-2
Prepositions………………………………………………………………………………...……….3
Compound Prepositions ……………………………………………………………..…………….4
Sight Verbs ……………………………………………………………………….…..….…………4
Personal Pronouns Chart ………………………………………………………………...…..……5
Subordinating Conjunctions (begin dependent clauses) ………………………………………….6
Definition to Run-on Sentence, Comma Splice, Fused Sentence, and 5 ways to correct R-O…7
Correcting Run-on Sentences: Connecting Words and How to Punctuate Them ……….…8-9
Definition to Fragment and Instructions on Correct Fragments ……………………………...10
Noun of Address …………………………………………………………………………………..11
Parenthetical Expressions ……………………………………..………………………….….......11
Set 1 Comma Rules …………………………………………....................................................…12
Introductory Elements: Dependant Clause, Participial Phrase, and Succession of Prepositional Phrases;
Comma and FANBOYS, 3 or More Items in a Series, Noun of Address
Set 2 Comma Rules ………………………………………..…......................................……….…13
Appositive, Parenthetical Expression, Nonessential Participial Phrase, Two or More ADJECTIVES
Preceding a Noun, Set Off a Quote
Set 3 Comma Rules ...………………………………………….…………....................................14
Nonessential Clause, Essential Clause, Essential Participial Phrase, Contrasting Element, Date,
Geographical Information
Colons ………………………………………………………….……….…………….....……..…..15
Semicolons & Hyphens ………………………………………………..……………….…...........16
Subject/Verb Agreement ………………..………………………………...…….…….........…17-19
Subject/Verb Separated with a Clause or Phrase ………………...………..………..……….......…17
Compound Subjects ………………………………………………………..……….……...…...17-18
Indefinite Pronouns ………………………………………………………..……….…………........18
Collective Nouns ……………………………………………………………..………………….....18
Plural Nouns Singular in Meaning …………………………………………..…………………......18
Titles …………………………………………………………………………..……………....…....19
Amounts ……………………………………………………………………………………..…..…19
Predicate Nominatives ………………………………………………………………….…….…....19
Subjects in Unusual Locations …………………………………………………..………..………..19
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement ……………………………………………………......…….…20
Capitalization ………………………………...……………………………………………......21-23
Parallel Structure ………………………………………………………….…..…………..…….. 23
Double Negatives ………………………………………………………………………….....…....24
Misplaced Modifiers ………………………………………………………………………...…....25
Apostrophe ………………………………………………………………………………….....26-27
Active / Passive Voice ………………………………………………………………………..…...28
Word Often Confused ………………………………………………………………………..29-30
1
Tips for Success: How to Find the Subject(s) and Verb(s) of a Sentence
To find the subject of a sentence, ask yourself “who” or “what” performed the action of the verb.
Example: At Freshmen Fling on Thursday, Brittany and Brandon met with all their first semester teachers.
Subject (s) = Brittany and Brandon
To find the verb of a sentence, ask yourself “what did the subject do?”
Example: Mr. Goins welcomed all the freshmen to North Surry High School and briefly explained the discipline
policy.
Verb(s) = welcomed and explained
Remember, a subject or a verb is NEVER in a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases show the
relationship between a noun and another word in the sentence. That relationship can be positions/locations (where
something is done), time (when something is done), or even with whom something is done. A prepositional
phrase ALWAYS begins with a preposition (check list of prepositions to be sure word begins prepositional
phrase) and ALWAYS ends with a noun (person, place, thing) or a pronoun (word that takes the place of a
noun).
Recognizing prepositional phrases in the above examples: Draw a line through the prepositional phrases in the
two examples given above. Check your preposition list (preposition handout) if you need help.
1) At Freshmen Fling, on Thursday, with all their first semester teacher = 3 prepositional phrases
2) to North Surry High School = 1 prepositional phrase
Tips for Success: A sentence’s structure may signal the location of its subjects and verbs.
You will usually see these three types of sentences:
 Statements
 Questions
 Commands
Statements (Declarative Sentences)
A Statement (or Declarative Sentence) “states” a fact and ends with a period.
Example: Mr. Goins is the principal of North Surry High School.
Subject = Mr. Goins
Verb = is
What is relationship between the location of the subject(s) to the verb(s) in a statement?
Rule for finding the subject(s) or verb(s) in a Statement: In a Statement (or Declarative Sentence), the
SUBJECT usually comes BEFORE the VERB.
*EXCEPTION to the rule governing statements* (Subjects in Unusual Locations)
Example: There are only 90 days in a semester.
Subject(s) = 90 days
Verb(s) = are
Rule governing exceptions: If the sentence BEGINS with a words such as “there,” the subject is found
AFTER the verb.
2
Inverted Subjects (or Inverted Word Order)
An inverted subject is occasionally found in a Statement (Declarative Sentence). This occurs only when the subject
follows a verb.
Example: Beside the barn stand silos filled with grain.
Subject = silos
Questions (Interrogative Sentences)
A Question (Interrogative Sentence) asks a question and must always end with a question mark.
Example #1: Why are you nervous today?
Subject(s) = you
Verb(s) = are
Example #2: Did you come to Freshmen Fling on Thursday to meet your first semester teachers?
Subject(s) = you
Verb(s) = did come
What is relationship between the location of the subject(s) to the verb(s) in a statement?
Rule for finding the subject(s) or verb(s) in a Question: In a Question (or Interrogative Sentence), the
SUBJECT usually comes AFTER or BETWEEN the VERB(s).
Commands (Imperative Sentences)
A Command (or Imperative Sentence) tells someone/something to do something and may end with either a
period or an exclamation point depending on the “forcefulness” of the situation.
Example #1: Call 911!
Subject(s) = “you” understood
Verb(s) = call
Example #2: Clean your room.
Subject(s) = “you” understood
Verb(s) = clean
Rule for finding the subject(s) or verb(s) in a Command: In a Command (or Imperative Sentence), the
SUBJECT(s) does/do NOT appear in the sentence. In a Command, the SUBJECT is ALWAYS the
understood “you.”
Directions: Identify each sentence as a statement, question, or command. Then circle the
subject(s) and underline the verb(s) in each sentence.
1. Open your textbook to page 125 and read the poem “Cats.”
2. Did Brandon ask you to carry his books to class for him, Amanda?
3. At the ball game between North Surry and Mt. Airy, my parents sat on the wrong
side of the gym!
4. Have Aaron and Matthew left for college yet?
5. Sit down and don’t say a word to me for the remainder of the period.
3
Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but (except)
by
concerning
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
over
past
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
underneath
until
up
upon
with
within
without
Bold-printed words are commonly used prepositions.
Prepositions show relationships between a noun and another word in the sentence. That relationship can be
position, time (when something is done), location (where something is done), or even with whom something
is done. The noun that follows the preposition is called the object of the preposition.
For example: Daniel gave his ticket to Angie, not Alex or me.
The preposition “to” signals the prepositional phrase. To find out where the prepositional phrase ends, ask to what,
to where, to whom.
**The preposition may have more than one object.
For example: Cheryl is friends with Luke and Theo.
**The object of the preposition may have adjectives in front of it.
For example: She walked across the muddy field.
**A sentence may have more than one prepositional phrase.
For example: We bought groceries for supper at the store across the street from our house. (This sentence
has 4 prepositional phrases!).
**Every sentence may not have a prepositional phrase.
For example: I wrecked my parents’ car.
**The prepositions listed above are sometimes adverbs!
For example: I sat down in my seat.
Remember: A prepositional phrase MUST end with a noun or a pronoun; the subject and verb will
NEVER be in a prepositional phrase.
4
Compound prepositions are two or more word working together as a one-work preposition. Here are
some commonly used compound prepositions:
according to
in back of
ahead of
in case of
along with
in front of
as for
in place of
as of
in regard to
aside from
in spite of
as well as
Instead of
away from
next to
because of
on account of
by way of
out of
due to
owing to
except for
up to
in addition to prior to
with the exception of
Punctuation Rule regarding compound prepositions: compound prepositional phrases must be set off from the
rest of the sentence using commas!
5
“Sight” Verbs (words that you should recognize on sight as being verbs)
am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been
do, does, did, done
may, might, must
have, has, had
shall, should
can, could
will, would
Sometimes these 24 verbs work with a main verb to form the verb phrase, but sometimes the verbs work
alone.
Read the examples below.
In some sentences, the verb is one word.
Example: Meg visited Boston.
In other sentences, the verb is two or more words.
Example: Meg will visit Boston again.
If a helping verb is used in a sentence, it will ALWAYS come somewhere BEFORE the main verb (but not
necessarily directly before the main verb).
Example: Is the garage key hanging by the back door?
Some “sight” verbs or “helping” verbs may be the only verbs (the main verbs) in the sentence.
Example: I am a teacher.
You are a student.
Tip to Finding the Verb of the Sentence:
To find the verb of the sentence, ask yourself what the subject did or what the action/ “do” word is in the sentence.
6
Singular and Plural Personal Pronouns
ownership)
we
you
they
Singular
Objective Case (objects: after verb
or at end of prepositional phrases)
me
you
him, her, it
or at end of prepositional phrases)
us
you
them
Plural
Nominative Case (subjects) Objective Case (objects: after verb
I
you
he, she, it
Nominative Case (subjects)
First Person:
Second Person:
Third Person:
ownership)
First Person:
Second Person:
Third Person:
Possessive Case (show
my, mine
your, yours
his, her, hers, its
Possessive Case (show
our, ours
your, yours
their, theirs
Personal pronouns have different forms depending on their number—singular or plural—and their gender—masculine,
feminine, or neuter (neither masculine nor feminine). Most personal pronouns also have different cases –
nominative/subjective, objective, or possessive—to show how they are used in a sentence.
Nominative case pronouns act as subjects or predicate nominatives (noun/pronouns following a linking verb and
renaming the subject).
Objective case pronouns act as objects; they generally come after the verb or end prepositional phrases.
Possessive case pronouns show ownership. Notice possessive pronouns do NOT use apostrophes.
7
Subordinating Conjunctions (pg. 456)
The following words signal dependent clauses (adverb clauses). Remember if a dependent clause (adverb
clause) begins the sentence, you MUST use a comma at the end of the dependent clause.
after
before
unless
although
if
until
as
in order that
when
as if
since
whenever
as long as
so that
where
as soon as
than
wherever
because
though
while
NOTE: Remember that after, before, since, until, and as may also be used as prepositions to begin
prepositional phrases, not dependent clauses. Can you tell the difference between a prepositional phrase and
dependent clause? Let’s see…
“After” introducing a prepositional phrase: When the opponent fumbled the football, Chad ran after the
ball.
 (When the opponent fumbled the football = dependent clause because the subordinating conjunction
“when” comes before the subject and verb)
 (Chad ran after the ball= independent clause; this part of the sentence could “stand alone” as a
sentence.)
“After” introducing a dependent clause: After I practiced football, I went home.
 (After I practiced football = dependent clause because the subordinating conjunction “when” comes
before the subject and verb)
 (I went home = independent clause; this part of the sentence could “stand alone” as a sentence.)
COMMA RULE: * Notice if the sentence begins with a dependent clause, you must put a comma at the end of
the dependent clause. What follows the commas should be the independent clause!
Relative Pronouns may also signal a dependent (subordinating) clause. So also be on the lookout for these
words: who, whom, whose, which, and that.
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* Subordinating conjunction (begins dependent clause); dependent clause is NOT required to begin sentence;
however, if dependent clause does begin sentence, you must use a COMMA!
Semicolon
People love peace;
they hate war.
Two Sentences
People love
peace. They hate
war.
; conjunctive
adverb ,
People love
peace; however,
they hate war.
* Complex Sentence
(begin one sentence
with subordinating
conjunction)
Because people love
peace, they hate
war.
Fused Sentence: two or
more sentences incorrectly
joined with no punctuation
(and no FANBOYS word)
at all.
Example: People love
peace they hate war.
Run-on Sentence: two or
more sentences incorrectly
joined with only a comma
(no FANBOYS word) or no
punctuation at all.
, + FANBOYS
People love
peace, but they
hate war.
Comma Splice: two
sentences incorrectly
joined with only a comma
(no FANBOYS word).
Example: People love
peace, they hate war.
9
Correcting Run-on Sentences: Connecting Words and How to Punctuate Them
Oftentimes students write in short sentences without connecting the sentences together. This creates a disjointed
and choppy effect, and frequently gets in the way of showing connections between ideas, as well as sentences.
Occasionally students who write this way also fall into the habit of creating inadvertent sentence fragments.
To create a better flow, four types of connecting words can be used: conjunctive adverbs, subordinating
conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, and transitions.
1. The first type of connecting words are conjunctive adverbs (to "conjunct" simply means to "join").
Conjunctive adverbs often fall in mid-sentence. If you join two "independent clauses" (i.e., sentences) using one
of these words, use a semicolon before it and a comma after it.
Correct example: I prefer to eat my dinner at the dining room table; instead, I usually eat in front of the
television. (The word "instead" is a conjunctive adverb.)
Here's a list of conjunctive adverbs:
also
anyway
consequently
finally
furthermore
hence
however
incidentally
indeed
instead
likewise
meanwhile
moreover
nevertheless
next
nonetheless
otherwise
still
then
therefore
thus
2. Second, are subordinating conjunctions. (To subordinate implies that something is of less importance than
something else or that something depends on something else.) If a subordinating conjunction falls in midsentence, there is usually no comma used. If it starts a sentence, there is a comma after the introductory phrase
(right before the subject and verb).
Correct example: After eating dinner in front of the television all week, I decided to change locations. (The word
"after" is a subordinating conjunction. Here it begins a sentence, leading to an introductory phrase. Notice that the
comma falls right before the subject and verb.)
Compare: I decided to change locations after eating dinner in front of the television all week. (Notice that there is
no comma before the "after" in this second example. Because it falls in mid-sentence, there is no introductory
phrase which would require a comma.)
Here's a list of subordinating conjunctions:
after
although
as
as [far/soon] as
as if
as though
because
before
even if
even though
how
if
inasmuch as
in case [that]
in order that
insofar as
in that
lest
no matter how
now that
once
provided [that]
since
so that
supposing [that]
than
that
10
though
till
unless
until
when, whenever
where, wherever
whether
while
why
3. Third, are coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) (of equal importance instead of lesser importance). Put a
comma before a coordinating conjunction only if it joins two independent clauses.
Correct example: I ate dinner in front of the television every night, and I finally got tired of it.
Compare: I ate dinner in front of the television every night and finally got tired of it. (This sentence lacks a
subject after the "and," so there is no comma.)
List of coordinating conjunctions:
and
so
yet
but
or
for
nor
4. If your high school English teacher told you that coordinating conjunctions always had commas before them,
he/she was wrong. Get over it! And if the same teacher told you that you couldn't start a sentence with "and" or
"but," then he/she was also wrong. Look it up in your handbook. "And" and "but" are very effective transitions
when used properly and not overused.
5. Finally, there are transitional phrases, which usually begin a sentence and are followed by a comma:
after all
as a result
at any rate
at the same time
by the way
even so
for example
in addition
in fact
in other words
in the second place
on the contrary
on the other hand
Correct Example: It snowed six inches last night. As a result, school is cancelled today.
Use transitional phrases between paragraphs to create a logical flow in your writing. Use them within paragraphs,
too. Avoid overusing a particular phrase.
Learning how to use these words will help you communicate clearly and with emphasis. But take care to
punctuate them correctly because incorrect punctuation will frequently confuse your reader or even change the
meaning of a sentence.
11
Fragment / Incomplete Sentence
Fragment: A sentence fragment generally lacks a subject, a verb, or both and/or it does not express a complete
thought. For each example below, identify the error which results in a sentence fragment.
Example: Enjoyed riding the roller coaster. Error: missing a subject
After I left the movies with Amber. Error: incomplete thought
On the nightstand beside my bed.
Error: missing both a subject and a verb
A greyhound above the entrance to North Surry High School. Error: missing a verb
Suggestions for Success:
 You can join a sentence (S) with a fragment (F) when the fragment is an incomplete thought if the
independent clause (S) and the fragment (F) are related ideas which complement one another.
 You can join a fragment missing a subject (F – subject) with a fragment missing a verb (F - verb) if the
two fragments are related ideas which complement one another.
 You can join a sentence (S) with another sentence (S) only when the second sentence begins with a
FANBOYS word (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So). *Remember to place a comma BEFORE the
FANBOYS word joining two independent clauses!
Three ways to correct fragments are as follows:
S + F (Inc. thought)
F (- subject) + F (- verb)
S + FANBOYS + S
Directions: First, identify each of the following as a fragment (F) or a sentence (S). Next, identify
the error which results in a sentence fragment. Finally, correct the fragments by pairing them with
other fragments or sentences (see above).
____ 1. And its height is 481 feet. ERROR: ____________
____ 2. Continue to amaze the modern-day viewer. ERROR: ____________
____ 3. Egyptian pyramids have four triangular sides. ERROR: ____________
____ 4. Is counted one of the seven wonders of the world. ERROR: ____________
____ 5. Is evidence of the skillful, patient mathematicians and builders. ERROR: ____________
____ 6. Its square base measures 756 feet on each side. ERROR: ____________
____ 7. The colossal size of the pyramids and the fact that they conform to a strict geometrical
plan. ERROR: ____________
___ 8. The Great Pyramid, which is the largest one. ERROR: ____________
____ 9. These permanent architectural structures of the past. ERROR: ____________
____10. Which meet at a point at the top. ERROR: ____________
Correcting Sentence Fragments
Pairs: ____ + ____; ____ + ____; ____ + ____; ____ + ____; ____ + ____
12
Noun of Address
What is a Noun of Address? Can a Noun of Address be a subject? Are all names Nouns of Addresses? Does a
Noun of Address always come at the beginning of the sentence? Is any special punctuation required to set off a
Noun of Address from the rest of the sentence? Read and See!
Noun of Address = talking to person and using his/her name in your sentence
Statement using a Noun of Address: Kasey, I saw you at ProHealth yesterday with Leah.
Explanation: Someone is speaking to Kasey. Notice the comma that sets off the noun of address from the rest of
the sentence.
Statement using a name, not a Noun of Address: I saw Kasey at ProHealth yesterday with Leah.
Explanation: Someone is talking about, but not talking to, Kasey.
Command using a Noun of Address: Meet me at ProHealth at 3:00 today, Kasey.
Explanation: Someone is speaking to Kasey. Notice the Noun of Address does not always begin the sentence.
Command using a name, not a Noun of Address: Don’t meet Kasey at ProHealth at 3:00 today.
Explanation: Someone is talking about, but not talking to, Kasey.
Question using a Noun of Address: Will you meet me at ProHealth at 3:00 today, Kasey?
Explanation: Someone is speaking to Kasey.
Question using a name, not a Noun of Address: Will Kasey meet me at ProHealth today at 3:00?
Explanation: Someone is talking about, but not talking to, Kasey.
13
Parenthetical Expressions
Parenthetical expressions are side remarks that add information or relate ideas.
The following are commonly used parenthetical expressions:
after all
as a matter of fact
at any rate
consequently
for example
for instance
generally speaking
however
I believe
I guess
I hope
I know
I suppose
I think
in fact
in my opinion
in the first place
moreover
nevertheless
of course
on the contrary
on the other hand
therefore
to tell the truth
Punctuation Rule: Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions.
Sometimes the parenthetical expression is contained within one sentence.
For example: As a matter of fact, Romeo doesn’t even love Juliet at the beginning of the play.
Hint: Remember a parenthetical expression may come at the beginning, middle, or end of a
sentence.
Parenthetical expressions CANNOT be used as conjunctions to join two independent clauses
(sentences).
INCORRECT USAGE: The Montagues and the Capulets are mortal enemies, nevertheless,
Romeo and Juliet secretly marry within 24 hours of first meeting.
Correct usage: The Montagues or the Capulets are mortal enemies; nevertheless, Romeo and
Juliet secretly marry within 24 hours of first meeting.
Correct usage: The Montagues or the Capulets are mortal enemies. Nevertheless, Romeo and
Juliet secretly marry within 24 hours of first meeting.
14
How to Prove First Six Comma Rules: Introductory Dependent Clause, Introductory Participial
Phrase, Comma and FANBOYS, Three or More Items in a Series (list), Noun of Address, and
Introductory Succession of Prepositional Phrases.
1. Introductory Dependent Clause
Put a box around the subordinating conjunction (should be the first word in the sentence), circle the
subject(s) and underline the verb(s) of the dependent clause.
Example: After Santiago catches the marlin, he must lash it to the side of the skiff to get it home.
2. Introductory Participial Phrase
Draw an arrow from the participial (should be the first word in the sentence—looks like a verb, but acts as
an adjective) to the word it describes.
Example: Straining with all his might, Santiago holds the line for three days before he get the chance to
harpoon the marlin.
3. Comma and FANBOYS
Circle the subject(s) and underline the verb(s) of EACH independent clause.
Example: Santiago views the Mako shark as a noble opponent, but he sees the shovel-nose shark as a
predator.
4. Three or More Items in a Series (List)
Number each item in the list.
Example: Santiago catches a tuna, a dolphin, and two flying fish to eat during his journey.
5. Noun of Address
Put a big X over the noun of address.
Example: After his journey Manolin asks the old man, “How much did you suffer, Santiago?”
Santiago’s only reply is “[p]lenty.”
6. Introductory Succession of Prepositional Phrases
The sentence begins with more than one prepositional phrase in a row. Mark through each prepositional
phrase. Make sure I can see where each prepositional phrase begins and ends. Put the comma at the end
of the last prepositional phrase. Do not get this rule confused with three or more items in a series!
Example: In the middle of the Gulf Stream in his tiny skiff, Santiago finally catches the 1,500-pound
marlin.
15
*How to Prove the Five New Comma Rules: Appositive, Parenthetical Expression, Nonessential Participial
Phrase, Two or More Adjectives Preceding a Noun, and Set Off a Quote
1. Appositive (a noun or pronoun that renames, defines, or identifies the subject)
*Write the word “noun” over the appositive. Then draw an arrow from the appositive to the word it renames,
defines, or identifies. An appositive usually comes between the subject and the verb; therefore, you may
need to add two commas when applying this comma rule.
Example: Santiago, an old Cuban fisherman, has been fishless for 84 days before he hooks a 1,500-pound
marlin.
2. Parenthetical Expression (a side remark that adds information or relates ideas; also known as transitions or
conjunctive adverbs—CONSULT YOUR LIST!):
*Highlight the parenthetical expression.
Example: Santiago is, in fact, a very lucky person to survive his battle with the marlin and numerous shark
attacks.
3. Nonessential Participial Phrase (a participial phrase that may be omitted from the sentence without
changing the sentence’s meaning—extra information).
* Draw an arrow from the participial (the word that looks like a verb, but acts as an adjective) to the word it
describes (usually the subject of the sentence). A nonessential participial phrase usually comes between the
subject and the verb of the sentence; therefore, you may need two commas when applying this comma rule.
Example: Santiago, straining with all of his might, begins to see black spots.
4. Two or More Adjectives PRECEDING (coming before) a Noun:
*Write an “A” above the first adjective, a “B” above the second adjective. Continue this pattern for any
other adjectives that PRECEDE the noun. Join EACH adjective (“A,” “B,” etc.) with a plus sign (+). Circle
the NOUN (person, place, thing) the adjectives modify/describe. Remember the noun you circle should
come AFTER the adjectives you have labeled with A, B, C, etc. Hint: if you can join the two adjectives
with the word “and” and if you can flip flop the top adjectives preceding the noun, only then do you need a
comma.
Example: An old, wrinkled fisherman spends his days fishing in the Gulf Stream and his nights dreaming
about the lions playing on the beach.
A wrinkled, old fisherman spends his days fishing in the Gulf Stream and his nights dreaming
about the lions playing on the beach.
5. Set Off a Quote
*Circle the quotation marks that enclose the quote. If a comma or period comes at the end of a quote, it
(comma or period) must always be within the closing quotation mark.
Example: The boy asks, “How much did you suffer?”
“How much did you suffer?” the boy asks. (Notice no comma used if phrased this way)
“Plenty,” the old man said.
16
How to Prove Last Six Comma Rules
Signal Words: The following RELATIVE PRONOUNS may signal a clause: who, whom, whose, which, and
that. You must decide if the clause is essential or nonessential!
NOTE: An adjective clause beginning with “that” is usually essential and should not be set off with commas!
Nonessential Clause (a clause that is not necessary, not essential, to understand the sentence. USUALLY the
nonessential clause acts as an interrupting element and comes between the subject and the verb of the sentence.
Therefore, two commas are usually needed to set off the nonessential clause from the rest of the sentence.)
*Circle the RELATIVE PRONOUN which begins the nonessential clause and underline the verb of the
nonessential clause.
Example: Manolin, who is Santiago’s friend and former fishing partner, is often referred to as
the boy to emphasize his youth and inexperience as a fisherman.
Essential Clause (clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence and CANNOT be set off with commas)
*Circle the RELATIVE PRONOUN which begins the nonessential clause and underline the verb of the
nonessential clause.
Example: The fishermen who mocked Santiago for having been fishless for 84 days are
convinced of the old man’s skill when he catches a 1,500-pound marlin all by himself.
Essential Participial Phrase (participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence and CANNOT be set
off with commas)
*Draw an arrow from the participial to the word it describes (usually the subject, right?)
Example: The fish fighting Santiago for three days and two nights is a 1,500-pound marlin.
Contrasting Element (sharp contrasts beginning with words such as “not,“ “but,” and “unlike.”)
*DOUBLE underline the word signaling the contrasting element and draw an arrow from the contrasting
elements.
Example: Santiago catches the marlin far out to sea, not near the shore.
Date
*Circle the COMPLETE DATE.
Example: On Monday, September 1, 1952, Ernest Hemingway’s novella The Old Man and the
Sea, which sold 5.3 million copies within two days, appeared in print in Life magazine.
Geographical Information
*Draw a figure eight around the geographical information.
Example: Santiago lives near Havana, Cuba.
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Punctuation: Colon
The following rules and examples will help you know when and where to use the colon as a punctuation
mark.

Use a colon to signal the reader that a series of words, phrases, or clauses follows a complete sentence (list).
Example: The baseball coach claimed that the team’s success stemmed from four things: consistent hitting,
solid pitching, good fielding, and excellent teamwork.
EXCEPTION TO RULE FOR LIST (This is tested on EOC): DO NOT use a colon if the list
immediately follows a verb or a preposition!
Examples: When I went to the store, I bought pizza, chips, bread sticks, salsa, soda, and cookies.
I went to the dance with Adam, Chelsey, David, and Savannah.

Use a colon to signal the reader that a second complete sentence explains a closely related preceding sentence
(explanatory sentence).
Example: The supervisor’s remark was straight to the point: I won’t tolerate workers who show up late.

Use a colon to signal the reader that a name or description follows a complete sentence when you want to put a
lot of emphasis on that item (formal appositive).
Example: The preoccupied student didn’t notice the principal standing right behind him: Mr. Goins.

Use a colon to introduce a long or formal quotation after a complete sentence (quote).
Example: In his book, Language is Sermonic, rhetorician Richard Weaver described how language may
influence us: Sophistications of theory cannot obscure the truth that there are but three ways for language to
affect us. It can move us toward what is good; it can move us toward what is evil; or it can, in hypothetical
third place, fail to move us at all. (60)
 Use a colon to separate titles and subtitles:
Example: Richard Nixon: The Tarnished President
 Use a colon to express time:
Example: The accident occurred at approximately 1:45 p.m. on Tuesday.
 Use a colon to end a salutation of a business letter:
Example: Dear Gentlemen:
 Use a colon with references to periodicals to separate volume from page number:
Example: Business News 61: 12
 Use a colon for Biblical references to separate chapter and verse:
Example: John 3:16
 Words/Labels used to signal important ideas:
Example: Warning: This product is for external use only.
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Punctuation: Semi-colon
The semicolon is used to separate coordinate elements, usually independent clauses. It functions more like a weak
period than like a strong comma.

Use a semicolon between independent clauses if the clauses are closely related, but not joined by a
coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).
EXAMPLE : You should apply for that job; you have the qualifications, and you are not happy in your
present job.

Use a semi-colon before a conjunctive adverb (transitional word or parenthetical expression) that joins the
clauses of a compound sentence.
EXAMPLE: The Chinese government will not permit the sale of a giant panda; however, sometimes one
will be lent to another country as a goodwill gesture.

Use a semi-colon to separate the items of a series if one or more of these items contains commas.
EXAMPLE: Many of the candidates, particularly the third party candidates, were virtually excluded from
media coverage; but the more enterprising ones--for example, Eileen Smith (the Green Party candidate) and
Lance Richards (the Libertarian candidate)--managed to stir up publicity with aggressive confrontations of
the major parties' candidates.
Punctuation: Hyphen

Use a hyphen between the words that make up a compound adjective when the modifier is used before a
noun.
Examples: eighteen-speed mountain bike, after-school tutorial, hard-working student

Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
Example: fifty-seven candles

Use a hyphen in fractions
Example: one-third of the population

Use a hyphen with any word using the prefixes “self-,” “all-,” “mid-,” “ex-,” “pro-,” “great-,” and the
suffixes “-elect, ” and “-free.”
Example: self-employed, all-American, ex-students, post-war, mid-December, pro-United Nations, greatgrandfather, senator-elect, and oil-free

Use a hyphen in certain compound nouns
Example: mother-in-law
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Subject / Verb Agreement Rules
Singular means ONE; Plural means TWO or MORE.
Subject/Verb Agreement means the subject and verb are the SAME.
Subject/Verb Agreement Rules
 Singular subjects take singular verbs, and singular verbs usually end with an “s.”
Example: Lee hates chocolate.
 Plural subjects take plural verbs, and plural verbs usually do not end with an “s.”
Example: However, Kasey and Leah love chocolate.
Exception to Subject/Verb Agreement Rule
 Although the personal pronouns “I” and “you” are singular, they require a plural verb.
Example: I like chocolate! (like = plural verb)
You are my best friend. (are = plural verb)
Subjects and Verbs must agree in two ways:


in number: singular vs. plural
in person: first, second, or third person
Question: How do we know we have disagreement between the subject and verb?
The following are six situations in which subject-verb disagreement errors can be more
difficult to spot.
1. When the subject and verb are separated
 Find the subject and verb and make sure they agree.
 Ignore the words in-between because they do not affect agreement.
Outlaw
Rehabilitated
The characters in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night
The characters in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night
lives in a world that has been turned upsidelive in a world that has been turned upside-down.
down.
2. Compound subjects
 If the two subjects are joined by “and” the verb will be plural in most situations
o Exception: when the joined subjects are preceded by “each,” “every,” “no,” “nothing,”
or “many a” Example: Every dog and cat has been vaccinated.
o Exception: If words joined by “and” refer to a single thing (often with foods or music),
the subject is singular. Examples: My friend and co-worker is waiting. (one person);
Country and Western isn’t my favourite music. (one type of music); Macaroni and
cheese tastes best hot, not cold. Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast food.
o Exception: COMPOUND SUBJECT FOLLOWED BY EACH: When the indefinite pronoun each
follows a compound subject, the subject is usually plural. Example: Justin, Meredith, and Cody
each have a different recollection of the event.
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If the subjects are joined by “Neither (subject 1) nor (subject 2)” or “Either (subject 1) or (subject
2)” or “Not only (subject 1) but also (subject 2),” the verb agrees with the subject closer to the verb
(subject 2).
Outlaw
Rehabilitated
Christie and Prin is characters from Laurence’s Christie and Prin are characters from Laurence’s
The Diviners.
The Diviners.
Neither Edna’s neighbours nor her husband
Neither Edna’s neighbours nor her husband
agree with her decision.
agrees with her decision.

3. Indefinite Pronouns
 Singular indefinite pronouns (each, either, neither, one, no one, no body, nothing, anyone,
anybody, anything, someone, somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything, another,
other, little, much) use singular verbs.
 Plural indefinite pronouns (both, few, many, others, and several) use plural verbs.
 All, most, any, none, more, some, and enough can be either singular or plural depending on
the situation (You’ll have to look at the noun or
 pronoun that ends the prepositional phrase following the indefinite pronoun.)
Outlaw
Rehabilitated
Each of Sylvia Plath’s “bee poems” use the
Each of Sylvia Plath’s “bee poems” uses the theme
theme of beekeeping to express aspects of the
of beekeeping to express aspects of the human
human condition.
condition.
Both of the main characters in Waiting for
Both of the main characters in Waiting for Godot
Godot believes Godot is the purpose of life.
believe Godot is the purpose of life.
All of the children is afraid of the dark.
All of the children are afraid of the dark.
All of the candy in the treat bags have
been eaten
All of the candy in the treat bags has been eaten.
4. Collective nouns
 These are nouns that are singular in form, but plural in meaning.
o Examples: band, minority, majority, class, community, dozen,
o family, public, team, jury, faculty, herd, audience, fleet, flock, squadron, swarm, club,
company, army, group, etc.
 When they act as one entity, use a singular verb.
 When they do separate things, use a plural verb, BUT it is easier to reword the sentence. For
example, write “the members of the team” instead of “the team.”
Outlaw
Rehabilitated
The majority of English majors read Conrad’s The majority of English majors reads Conrad’s
Heart of Darkness while at university.
Heart of Darkness while at university.
5. Plural nouns that are singular in meaning
 Some plural nouns such as athletics, economics, politics, civics, mathematics, sports, news,
mumps, and measles take singular verbs.
 Some words ending in –s such as glasses, pants, trousers, slacks, pajamas, pliers, shears,
binoculars, tweezers, scissors, clothes, thanks, and congratulations require plural verbs
unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
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Outlaw
Rehabilitated
Politics are an issue in R. K. Narayan’s The Man- Politics is an issue in R. K. Narayan’s The Maneater of Malgudi.
eater of Malgudi.
6. Titles
 When used in sentences, the titles of books, plays, poems, movies are singular.
Outlaw
Rehabilitated
Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children are my
Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children is my
favourite novel.
favourite novel.
7. Amounts
 Words stating amounts are USUALLY singular.
Examples: Twenty dollars is too much to pay for a hamburger.
Two hours is too long to wait to see the doctor.
Three-fourths of the movie was boring.
Exception: Sometimes, however, the amount is thought of as individual
pieces/parts and needs a PLURAL verb.
Examples: Five of the dollars that you spent were mine.
Two of the hours were spent in a hot, crowded gym.
Three-fourths of the songs were new.
Tips for making Subject/Verbs Agree when dealing with amounts:
 1. If the number is followed by a noun, the amount is singular.
Example: Two dollars is all I have with me.
 2. If the number is followed by a prepositional phrase, the amount is USUALLY plural.
Example: Two of the dollars were his, not mine.
(exception) One of the dollars was his, not mine.
 3. If the amount is a fraction, the prepositional phrase following the fraction will
determine the agreement.
Example: Two-thirds of the pie was eaten.
Two-thirds of the eggs were broken.
8. Predicate nominatives (the noun following a linking verb that renames or further
identifies the subject)
 A verb should always agree with its subject, not the predicate nominative.
Example: Three pieces of candy are the prize.
subject = three pieces (plural) verb = are (plural)
Example: The prize is three pieces of candy.
Subject = prize (singular) verb = is (singular)
9. Subjects in Unusual Locations: Sometimes the subject comes after the verb.
Example: There are maps hanging on the wall in World History.
Subject = maps
Verbs = are
Example: On the floor under my bed is the lost library book.
Subject = book
Subject = Brandon
Example: Should Brandon stay for tutoring?
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Verb = is
Verb = should stay
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement Rules: The same rules governing subject-verb agreement apply to pronounantecedent agreement: a singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun and a plural antecedent requires a plural
pronoun.
Antecedent: the noun to which the pronoun refers.
1. A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of the antecedent.
Example: The can of lima beans sits on its shelf.
2. Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.
Example: Jones and Smith made their presentation.
Compound subjects joined by or/nor/but also agree with the antecedent closer to the pronoun.
Example: Neither the director nor the actors did their jobs.
Example: Neither the actors nor the director did his or her job.
3. Indefinite pronouns as antecedents
 Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents.
SINGULAR: each, either, neither, one, no one, nobody, nothing, anyone, anybody, anything, someone,
somebody, something, everyone, everybody, everything, little, much, another, other
Example: Each of the clerks does a good deal of work around his or her office.

Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.
PLURAL: several, few, both, many, others
Example: Both do a good job in their office.

Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be either singular or
plural.
“WISHY-WASHY” (EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL): some, any, none, all, most, more
Examples: Some of the sugar fell out of its bag.
Examples: Some of the marbles fell out of their bag.
4. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on meaning.
Example: The jury read its verdict.
In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the referent pronoun is singular.
Example: The jury disagree among themselves.
In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the pronoun is plural.
5. Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent. (news, measles, mumps, physics, etc)
Example: The news has lost much of its sting two days later.
6. Titles of single entities. (books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular referent.
Example: The Grapes of Wrath made its characters seem realistic.
Example: The United States cherishes its democracy.
7. Every, Each, No, Nothing, or Many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular pronouns.
Example: Every cow, pig, and horse had lost its life in the fire.
Example: Many a girl wishes she could sing like Tina Turner.
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8. The number of vs A number of before a subject:
 The number of is singular.
Example: The number of volunteers increases its ranks daily.

A number of is plural.
Example: A number of volunteers are offering their help.
Rules of Capitalization
Rules of Capitalization
Capitalization is one way to call attention to important, meaningful words. The most familiar uses of capitalization
are at the beginning of sentences and for proper nouns, like names. The other uses of capitalization most often
distinguish general nouns from specific ones. In general, the words that are capitalized fall into the following
categories:
 Names of people
 Personal titles
 Nationalities
 Religions
 Geographical names and structures
 Organizations
 Historical events
 First words and titles
Rule: Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.
A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
Example: I am a freshmen at North Surry High School.
A proper adjective is an adjective formed by a proper noun.
Example: I love Italian food.
Unlike proper nouns and adjective, common nouns are not capitalized.
Example: I love to eat my high school cafeteria’s food.
Rule: Capitalize people’s names and initials.
Ernest Hemingway
R. L. Stein
John F. Kennedy
Rule: Capitalize titles and abbreviations for titles used before people’s names or in direct address.
Chief Justice Sandra Day O’Conner
Ms. Edwards
Senator Ted Kennedy
Dr. Lionel Warren, Jr.
Rule: Capitalize a title used without a person’s name if it refers to a head of state or a person in another
important position.
the President of the United States
the Secretary of State
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
the Pope
Rule: Capitalize the titles indicating family relationships when the titles are used as names or parts of
names.
Example: Uncle Arnold and Mom teased Grandma about her fear of cats.
Note: If the title is preceded by an article (an, and, the) or a possessive pronoun (my, his, her, ours, etc.) or a
possessive adjective, do not capitalize the title indicating family relationships.
Example: My mom’s dream is to travel to Africa.
Rule: Capitalize the names of races, languages, nationalities, and religions and any adjectives formed from
these names.
Caucasian
Spanish
Vietnamese Mexican restaurant
Rule: Capitalize all words referring to God and religious scriptures.
24
the Lord
Allah
the Bible
Jesus Christ
Rule: Always capitalize the pronoun “I.”
Billy and I ran in the marathon.
Rule: In a geographical name, capitalize the first letter of each word except articles and prepositions.
Continents:
North America, Asia, Australia
Bodies of Water:
Gulf of Mexico, Niagara Falls, the Pacific Ocean, Ohio River
Land Forms:
Cape Cod, Mohave Desert
World Regions:
the Middle East, Southeast Asia
Public Areas:
the Alamo, Pilot Mountain State Park, the Old North Bridge
Political Units:
Nevada, Surry County
Roads, Highways:
U.S. Highway 52, Interstate 77, the Appalachian Trail, Rodeo Drive
Rule: Capitalize names of sections of the country or the world, and any adjectives that come from those
sections.
The South has many historic battlegrounds.
John has a Midwestern accent.
Rule: Capitalize the names of the planets in the solar system and other objects in the universe, except words
like sun and moon.
Pluto
Halley’s Comet
a phase of the moon
Note: Capitalize the word “earth” only when it is used in conjunction with the names of other planets. The
word “earth” is not capitalized when the article “the” precedes it.
Example: From the vantage point of space, astronauts have said the earth is a beautiful planet.
Rule: Capitalize the names of specific monuments, bridges, and buildings.
the Jefferson Memorial
First Baptist Church
the Golden Gate Bridge
Rule: Capitalize all words except prepositions and conjunctions in the names of organizations and
institutions. Also capitalize abbreviations of these names.
Democratic Party
Kennedy High School
Securities and Exchange Commission
Rule: Capitalize the names of historical events, documents, and periods of time.
Trojan War Bill of Rights
the Renaissance
the Battle of Gettysburg
Rule: Capitalize the names of months, days, and holidays but not the names of seasons unless they are
personified.
April
Friday
Thanksgiving
spring
Rule: Capitalize the abbreviations B.C., A.D., A.M., and P.M.
1200 B.C.
2005 A.D.
8:15 A.M.
7:30 P.M.
Rule: Do not capitalize the general names of school subjects. Only capitalize those school subjects that are
specific or followed by a number or a language.
English
Algebra I
Introduction to T. & I.
physics
Rule: Capitalize class names only when they refer to a specific group or event or when they are used in
direct address.
The freshmen are collecting canned goods for the Freshmen Class food drive.
25
Rule: Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
The guitarist had blisters on his fingertips.
Rule: Capitalize the first word of a direct quote.
Abraham Lincoln said, “No man is good enough to govern another man without that man’s consent.”
Rule: Capitalize the first word in the greeting of a letter. Also capitalize the title, person’s name, and words
such as Sir and Madam.
Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear Ms. Whitaker,
Dear Alice,
Rule: Capitalize the first, last, and all important words in titles. Do not capitalize conjunctions, articles, or
prepositions with fewer than five letters.
Book Title
The Old Man and the Sea
Newspaper
The Mt. Airy News
Play
Romeo and Juliet
Television Series
Friends
Short Story
“The Last Rung on the Ladder”
Song
“Dust in the Wind”
Work of Art
The Judgment of Paris
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Parallel Structure or Parallelism
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level
of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is
with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
1. Words and Phrases
 With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Example: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases: Example: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.) Do not mix forms.
Example 1
Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.
Example 2
Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.
Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
Example 3
Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the
exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam,
completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.
2. Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or
changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
Example 1
Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and
to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that
they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up
exercises before the game.
Example 2
Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time
for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers.
(passive voice used here, notice “by prospective buyers”)
Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for
him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
27
3. Lists after a colon (TIP: Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.)
Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and irregular verbs.
Double Negatives
A double negative is the nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that they cancel each
other and create a positive. In Shakespeare's day, double negatives were considered emphatic, but today, they are
considered grammar mistakes.
Negative Words: The following list contains words that are regarded as negative. If you use them in your
sentences once, your statements will be negative.
no
none
barely
scarcely
never
nobody
nothing
hardly
seldom
except
no one
nowhere
merely
but (used as only)
just
not
neither
rarely
only
There are a few rules to keep in mind when making a sentence say "No."
1. Double negatives are nonstandard. Avoid two negative words in the same clause.
Incorrect: I don't want no seconds.
(Both don't and no are negatives.)
Correct: I don't want any seconds.
Correct: I want no seconds.
This rule does not include negative interjections at the beginning of a sentence or clause, since those are
grammatically separate.
Correct: No, I don't want any seconds.
2. Do not use but in a negative sense with another negative.
Incorrect: He didn't want but one good manuscript.
Correct: He wanted but one good manuscript. Correct: He wanted only one good manuscript.
3. Words like barely, hardly, and scarcely have a negative sense and should not be used with another negative. In
effect, this creates a double negative.
Incorrect: He couldn't hardly speak.
Correct: He could hardly speak.
Incorrect: We were not barely able to see the stage. Correct: We were barely able to see the stage.
Sentence
28
Meaning
Positive Construction
negative + negative
I hardly have none.
I have some.
I don't want nothing.
I want something.
Negative Construction
negative + positive
I hardly have any.
I have few.
I don't want anything.
I want nothing.
Misplaced or Dangling Modifier
A modifier, or modifying phrase, is a word or phrase that explains or describes or “modifies” a word.
MISPLACED MODIFIERS are words, phrases, or clauses that do not point clearly to the word or words they
modify. They have been separated from the words or phrases they modify.
Like so many American men, the day came when Hank wanted a sports car.
Explanation of Mistake: Since the day is the subject, the sentence implies that the day is like American men. This
is unintentionally funny and should be revised.
E XA M P L E :
Possible Corrections: (1) Like so many American men, Hank eventually wanted a sports car.
(2) The day came when Hank, like so many American men, wanted a sports car.
EXAMPLE: Santa is a short man with a bushy moustache weighing 200 pounds.
Explanation of Mistake: This sentence suggests that the man’s moustache weighs 200 pounds.
Possible Corrections: (1) Santa is a short man weighing 200 pounds and sporting a bushy moustache.
(2) Santa is a short man with a bushy moustache, and he weighs 200 pounds.
EXAMPLE: Allison took a walk on the pier wearing her new shoes.
Explanation of Mistake: This sentence suggests that the pier, not Allison, is wearing new shoes.
Possible Correction: Wearing her new shoes, Allison took a walk on the pier.
A DANGLING MODIFIER (also called a dangling participle) is a modifier that “dangles” from the beginning
or the end of a sentence because the WORD IT MODIFIES DOES NOTAPPEAR in the sentence.
EXAMPLE: Eating six corn dogs, nausea overwhelmed Jane.
Explanation of Mistake: This sentence suggests that nausea ate six corn dogs.
Possible Corrections: (1) Eating six corn dogs, Jane felt overwhelmed with nausea.
(2) Nausea overwhelmed Jane after she ate six corn dogs.
EXAMPLE: Diving in the ocean in search of dinner, we saw the pelican.
Explanation of Mistake: This sentence suggests that we were the ones, not the pelican, diving in the ocean in
search of dinner.
Possible Correction: We saw the pelican diving in the ocean in search of dinner.
LIMITING MODIFIER
A limiting modifier such as only, even, almost, hardly, nearly, and just should be placed in front of the word or
words they modify.
29
Incorrect: Jason only wants to take one class this semester.
Correct: Jason wants to take only one class this semester.
*Tip for Success: To avoid misplacing your modifiers, make sure they’re as close as possible to the
word they are explaining or describing.
The APOSTROPHE
The apostrophe has three uses:
1) to form possessives of nouns
2) to show the omission of letters
3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.
Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.
Forming possessives of nouns
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." or “belonging to”
phrase.
For example: the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of the" or “belong to” is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe
is needed!
For example: room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.
• add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car, James's hat
• add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game, the geese's honking
• add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs, three friends' letters
• add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
• add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment
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Showing omission of letters (Also called CONTRACTIONS)
Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or
numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in
informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s)
would go. Here are some examples:
don't = do not, I'm = I am, he'll = he will, who's = who is, shouldn't = should not, it’s = it is
Forming plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more
typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's
after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols
(though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:
p's and q's = a phrase indicating politeness, possibly from "mind
your pleases and thankyous"?
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classrom.
many &s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many &s on it.
Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.
Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession -they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:
wrong: his' book correct: his book
wrong: The group made it's decision. correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possesive pronoun
meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact
that you don't use an apostrophe for the possesives his or hers, so don't do it with its!)
wrong: a friend of yours' correct: a friend of yours
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. correct: She waited for three hours to get her
ticket
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Active / Passive Voice
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; in other words,
the subject acts!
Examples: 1) The dog bit the boy.
Dog = subject
bit = verb
2) Meredith will present her research at the conference.
Meredith = subject
will present = verb
3) Andrew opened the door.
Andrew = subject
opened = verb
4) Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis.
Scientists = subject have conducted = verb
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is
acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a “by the …” phrase.
Examples: 1) The boy was bitten by the dog.
2) Research will be presented by Meredith at the conference.
3) The door was opened by Andrew.
4) Experiments have been conducted by scientists to test the hypothesis.
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout
an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting.
Is passive voice ever the preferred voice? Yes, in scientific writing, passive voice is more readily accepted
since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researches as the
subjects of sentences. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because
writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing
appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individuals or personal interests.
Tips to Recognize Passive Voice
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as
am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is
in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a “by the…” phrase
after the verb (the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition—the noun or pronoun that
ends the prepositional phrase.
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Words Often Confused
If you read too hurriedly or experience test anxiety, you could easily overlook words that are often confused.
Don’t make careless mistakes.
accept / except
The verb accept means “to receive or believe” ; except is usually a preposition meaning
“excluding” or “to omit.”
Except for some extraordinary events, I can accept that the Odyssey recounts a real journey.
advice / advise
Advice is a noun naming what an adviser gives. Advise is a verb.
The failing student asked his friend Jason for ad vice. Jason advised his friend to attending
after-school tutoring.
affect / effect
As a verb, affect means “to influence.” Effect as a verb means “to cause, or bring about or
accomplish.” Used as a noun, effect means “the result of some action.”
Did Circe’s wine affect Odysseus’ mind? It did effect a change in Odysseus’ men. In fact,
it had an effect on everyone else who drank it.
allusion / illusion
An allusion is an indirect reference to something or someone. An illusion is a false picture
or idea.
“Between a rock and a hard place” is a famous allusion from Homer’s Odyssey. If you are
hallucinating, it’s just an illusion, so don’t freak out.
among / between
Between is used when you are speaking of only two things. Among is used for three or
more.
Between Romeo and Juliet and Othello, I prefer the later. Atticus Finch is among my
favorite literary characters.
bring / take
Bring is used to denote motion toward a speaker or place. Take is used to denote motion
away from such a person or lace.
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Bring your cell phone to me, so that I can take it to the front office.
fewer / less
Fewer refers to the number of separate, countable units. Less refers to bulk or quantity.
We have less time and fewer questions on this year’s English I EOC.
its / it’s
Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is a contraction meaning “it is” or “it has.”
The six week tests were formatted like the English I EOC. So its format will be familiar to
you. Aren’t you glad that it’s time for the English I EOC.
loose / lose
Loose means “free, not restrained"; lose means “to misplace or fail to find.”
Who turned the horses loose? I hope we don’t lose any of them.
precede / proceed
Precede means “ to go or come before.” Use proceed for other meanings.
English I precedes English II, III, and IV. If you pass the EOC, you may proceed to the
next course, English II.
than / then
Use than in making comparisons; use then for references to time.
Brittany is better in English than she is in math. She follows the study tip advice of
studying your hardest subject first, so she always completes her Algebra I homework then
she is more relaxing when completing her reading and writing assignments for English.
their/there/they’re Their is a possessive pronoun meaning “belong to them.” There is an adverb meaning “at
that place” or an expletive used to begin a sentence. They’re is a contraction meaning
“they are.”
There isn’t any milk for my cereal, so my parents will buy some while they’re at the store.
Of course, they will need it for their coffee, too.
two / too / to
Two is a number. Too is an adverb meaning “also” or “very.” Use to before a verb or a
preposition.
Jamie had to go to work after school even though she had too much homework to do for the
next day. Two chapters is too much to read in one night, don’t you think?
Were/we’re/where
Were is a verb. We’re is a contraction meaning “we are.” Where is an adverb indicating
place.
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Where have you been? We were looking everywhere for you. We’re happy to see you
now.
weather / whether
Weather means "conditions outdoors". Whether is an expression of choice between two
options.
Do you watch the weather to help you decide whether you should wear short or long
sleeves?
Proofreading Skill(s)
1. Active, not passive, Voice Needed
2. Apostrophe to show possession
3. Capitalize abbreviations
4. Capitalize languages
5. Capitalize PROPER ADJECTIVES
6. Capitalize PROPER NOUNS
7. Capitalize Regions of the Country
8. Capitalize school subjects followed by a number
9. Capitalize title of Literary Work
10. Clarity Needed
11. Colon to introduce explanatory sentence
12. Colon to introduce list
13. Colon to introduce long or formal quote
14. Colon to separate title & subtitle
15. Comma--Appositive
16. Comma--BEFORE FANBOYS joining 2 sentences
17. Comma--Contrasting Element
18. Comma--Geographical Information
19. Comma--Intro. Depend. Clause
20. Comma--Intro. One-word Response
21. Comma--Intro. Participial Phrase
22. Comma--Intro. Succession Prep. Phrases
23. Comma--Nonessential Clause (who, whom, whose, which, that)
24. Comma--Nonessential Participial Phrase (looks like verb, acts like
adjective)
25. Comma--Noun of Address
26. Comma--Parenthetical Expression
27. Comma--Three or More Items in a Series/List
28. Comma--Two or More Adjectives Preceding a Noun
29. Conciseness Needed (to reduce repetition / to reduce wordiness)
30. Consistent Verb Tense
31. DO NOT capitalize directions
32. DO NOT capitalize school subjects
33. DO NOT capitalize seasons unless personified
34. Double Negatives
35. Drawing Conclusions
36. Fragment, incomplete sentence
37. Hyphenate a compound adjective
38. Misplaced Modifier
39. NO apostrophe needed (plural of word needed instead)
40. NO colon--list immediately follows preposition
41. NO colon--list immediately follows verb
42. NO comma--Dep. Clause at END of sent.
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43. NO comma--essential clause
44. No comma--essential participial phrase
45. NO comma--NOT joining 2 sentences
46. NO comma--ONLY joining 2 ITEMS in series
47. NO semicolon--not two sentences
48. Organization of Paragraph/Essay
49. Parallelism/Parallel Structure NEEDED
50. Possessive Pronoun BEFORE Gerund
51. Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
52. Pronoun Usage
53. Punctuation at end of sentence
Proofreading Skill(s)
54. punctuation of TITLE
55. Punctuation/Quote
56. Run-on Sentence
57. Semicolon to avoid confusion (when 1st clause already uses comma(s))
58. Semicolon to join two sentences
59. Spelling
60. Subject/Verb Agreement
61. Subject/Verb Agreement--Collective Nouns
62. Subject/Verb Agreement--Compound Subjects joined with "and"
63. Subject/Verb Agreement--Compound Subjects joined with "or/nor"
64. Subject/Verb Agreement--Indefinite Pronouns
65. Subject/Verb Agreement--s/v separated with a clause or phrase
66. Subject/Verb Agreement--subject in unusual location
67. Subject/Verb Agreement--Title
68. Supporting Detail(s)
69. Variety of Sentence Structures
70. Word Choice/Word Meaning
71. Words often confused (for example: its/it's; there, they're, their)
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