* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Period 1/2 Textbook
Vectors in gene therapy wikipedia , lookup
Embryonic stem cell wikipedia , lookup
Dictyostelium discoideum wikipedia , lookup
Chimera (genetics) wikipedia , lookup
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems wikipedia , lookup
Cellular differentiation wikipedia , lookup
Cell culture wikipedia , lookup
Artificial cell wikipedia , lookup
Hematopoietic stem cell wikipedia , lookup
Human embryogenesis wikipedia , lookup
Microbial cooperation wikipedia , lookup
Neuronal lineage marker wikipedia , lookup
Cell (biology) wikipedia , lookup
State switching wikipedia , lookup
Adoptive cell transfer wikipedia , lookup
Regeneration in humans wikipedia , lookup
Organ-on-a-chip wikipedia , lookup
SNC2D(N) Period 1/2 Exam Review Bi y g o l o - Characteristics of Life & Cell Theory Diffusion, Osmosis & Cell Size Animal Cell Stuctures Plant Cell Structures Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes Cell Cycle & Mitosis Cancer Cell Specialization & Stem Cells Tissues Organ Systems Interactions between Organ Systems Plant Tissues & Organs Systems Characteristics of Life All living things have seven main defining characteristics: 1) Growth and Development (undergo changes in shape/size (maturation • :example • plant ——> seed ——> roots and stems ——> leaves 2) Acquire Energy • frog grow th • obtain and use energy (sunlight, food) to power growth, movement, and repair • includes gaining nutrients (gas exchange) • plants produce their own food (photosynthesis) • rat offspring • • • • respond and adapt to environment escape predators move towards light migrate for food • sunflowers move to face their light source 5) Homeostasis • maintenance of near constant internal environment 6) Order and Organization • must be composed of cells • multicellular organisms have various levels of organization 3) Reproduction • give life to offspring • sexual or asexual 4) Responsiveness 7) Adaptation • ability to change structure and appearance over time to adapt to changes in environemnt • examples: butterfly mimicry (camo on wings), bird beaks • brain cells • this video applies the characteristics of life to a volcano to determine if it is living or not The Cell Theory 1) All living things are made up of cells. 2) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. 3) The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-cell-theory-definition-timeline-parts.html http://www.ck12.org/biology/Characteristics-of-Life/lesson/Characteristics-of-Life-Advanced/ Chec link k thes info s for m e o rma tion re Diffusion Factors Affecting Diffusion Equilibrium: equal distribution of molecules in different areas 1. Temperature: the higher the temperature the faster the diffusion 2. Surface Area: larger the surface area the faster the diffusion 3. Concentration Gradient: the higher the gradient the faster the diffusion Diffusion: the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached Molecules are always moving they always bump in to each other and other barriers 4. Size of Particles: the smaller the particles the faster the diffusion 5. Diffusion Medium: solid --> slowest diffusion Liquid-->faster diffusion Gas--> fastest diffusion Want to Know More? http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/ hbase/kinetic/diffus.html Osmosis Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane A selectively permeable membrane only lets certain molecules through (water molecules) and leaves others out (ex. Sugar) A cell wall has a selectively permeable membrane 3 Things in Respect to Osmosis: 1. Hypotonic Solutions: water molecules go into the cell because it wants to go from an area with more concentration to an area with less concentration causing the cell to swell in size and there is a net water gain 2. Hypertonic Solutions: water molecules go out of the cell because it wants to go from an area with more concentration to an area with less concentration causing the cell to shrink sizeable there is a net water loss 3. Isotonic Solutions: the concentration of water is thesaurus both inside and outstanding de the cell so there is no net gain or loss Both Osmosis and diffusion move to create equilibrium, but osmosis is through a selectively permeable membrane and is only with water Animal Cell Structure ORGANELLES Cell Membrane: selectively-permeable - Gives support and structure to the cell - Controls movement of materials in and out of the cell Golgi Apparatus: stacks of flattened membrane stacks - Modifies proteins that come from ER, then packages and transports the proteins Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that contains all the organelles - Provides medium for movement of substances Mitochondria: has double membrane and its own DNA - Generates energy for the cell in the form of Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP) - Site of aerobic respiration: glucose+O2 --> CO2+H2O Lysosomes: are acidic inside - Break down food molecules and digest old cell part Nucleus: - controls all the activity of the cell and contains DNA (genetic information) Smooth E.R.: network of membranes, connects to nucleus (no ribosomes) - Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates - Detoxifies (poisons, drugs, alcohol, etc.) Ribosomes: - Build proteins Rough E.R.: network of membranes embedded with ribosomes, connects to nucleus - Provides transport for molecules through the cell - Helps in protein synthesis Vacuoles: small, many of them - Store water and food particles until digested by lysosomes Cytoskeleton: series of fibres and tubules - Provides structural support KEY POINTS Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles They have internal membranes to divide the cell into separate compartments This is important so that: -Reactions can occur in ideal environments -Reactions in a series can occur close to one another -Enzymes for a reaction can be built into the membrane --> speeds up reactions -Reactions that require different conditions can occur simultaneously within the cell Why don't animal cells have a cell wall? The cell wall is very rigid, so if animal cells had a cell wall, it would restrict movement. For additional information visit: http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/animal-cell.html?view=simple Plant Cells Structure And Functions Mitochondria- Bean shaped, inner membranes. Breaks down sugars to create ATP, energy. (Both plant and animal cells) Nucleus- Brain of cell. Controls cell's activities.(Both plant and animal cells) Cell Membrane- Inside cell wall. Controls what comes in and out of cell.(Both plant and animal cells) Vacuoles- Fluid filled sacs, storage area for cells.(Both plant and animal cells) Ribosomes- Small bodies floating around free or attached to E.R. Produce proteins.(Both plant and animal cells) Cytoplasm- Jelly-like substance. Home to cell's organelles.(Both plant and animal cells) Golgi Bodies- Flattened sacs/tubes. Receives proteins, other materials from E.R. Packages, redistributes them.(Both plant and animal cells) Endoplasmic Reticulum- Network of folded tubes/ membranes. Carries proteins, materials from one part of cell to the other.(Both plant and animal cells) Lysosomes- Small, round structures. Use chemicals to break down large food particles into smaller ones. Breaks down old cells.(In both cells, although uncommon in plant cells) Organelles Specific to Plant Cells Cell Wall- Outer layer, rigid, stiff, strong, non-living. The cell wall protects and supports the cell. Allows water and oxygen to pass through. Unlike animal cells, plants do not have a structural support such as a skeleton, so the cell wall is it's structural support. Chloroplasts- Green, oval structures. Usually contain chlorophyll. Capture energy from sunlight and use it to produce food for cells. Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis, and unlike animals, they cannot grab something and eat it. Chloroplasts help the plant get the sunlight, to make it's own food(using photosynthesis). P r ok a ryo t i c cells Prokaryotic a n d Eukaryotic cells - no membrane bound organelles -Single called organelles -No nucleus -Do not often need O2 -Simple Structure E u k a ryo t i c cells -Membrane bound organelles -Large -Complex structure -Unicellular or multicellular organisms -DNA in nucleus -Needs CO2 Pros and Cons of Prokaryotic cells Pros -Simple cell structure -Small -Single celled organism which allows it to reproduce and evolve faster Microscopic images of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Pros and Cons of Eukaryotic cells Cons -Not as advanced as Eukaryotic cells -Unicellular which allows the cell to not make up humans Pros -Complex structure allows it to do more advanced functions -More membrane bound organelles which help the cell have a separate reaction than other cells -Nucleus to hold information Video explaining Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells http://youtu.be/RQ-SMCmWB1s h t t p : / / y o u t u . b e / gfzVWG2DnQ4 http://youtu.be/9o6huiw7u5o Cons -Much more complex -Requires more energy -Needs more time to reproduce Video showing the similarities and differences in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Cell Cycle & Mitosis Sometimes cells do not go into mitosis if - other cells signal not to divide - not enough - DNA replicated improperly - DNA is damaged Interphase G1 checkpoint Checks for: - cell size - nutrients - growth - DNA damage Longest phase in unmutated cells Cells that don't pass checkpoints go into a resting phase known as G0 G1 - goes through cellular respiration; some cells go into G0 (zero) phase; Synthesis - DNA replicates; prepares for division; G2 - cell prepares to divide; makes more organelles; G2 checkpoint Checks for: - cell size - DNA replication The G0 phase is a phase where cells do not go thru mitosis. Such as nerve cells which remain in G0. The cell cycle Mitosis Stages of mitosis Prophase - DNA condenses into chromosomes 2 pairs of sister chromatids form chromosomes nucleus dissolves centrioles move to opposite poles Metaphase - chromosomes form line along middle of cell - spindle fibres attach to centromeres Anaphase - centromere splits chromosome - sister chromatids split (become daughter chromosomes) - chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell Telophase - new nuclear membrane forms around genetic material - cell appears to have 2 nuclei - cell membrane pinches inward Cytokinesi -s in animal cells: cytoplasm splits - in plant cells: cell plate forms in middle of cell - 2 new daughter cells are created - daughter cells go back into interphase Sometimes cells can mutate and divide uncontrollably which can form tumours that lead to cancer Mitosis Hand Jive Cell Specialization Why do cells need to specialize? -single cellular organisms (eg.amoeba) can perform all functions -multicellular organisms (eg.humans) require cells with specific functions How are cells specialized? Red blood cells -flexible discs -able to easily transport nutrients, gases and wastes through the body Skin cells -closely packed cells in many layers -allows for protection Muscle cells -bundles of cells that can compress and stretch -allows for movement Nerve cells -long thin cells with branches -allows for communication and contact with other cells What causes specialization? Remember, Structure dictates -expression of different genes within a cell -different distribution of organelles in the cytoplasm -variations in temperature and nutrients -neighbouring cells produce substances that diffuse to other cells Fat cells -cells with lots of empty space -allows for insulation, protection, and storage Photosynthetic cells -contain lots of chloroplasts -allows for more energy to be obtained from the sun to produce more glucose Guard cells -able to open and close -allows cells to regulate temperature and gas exchange Cellular differentiation- the process of creating specialized cells Stem cells -cells that can differentiate into many cell types Stem cells are... 1. able to differentiate into specialized cells 2.able to regenerate an infinite number of times 3.able to relocate and differentiate where needed Types of stem cells Totipotent: Fertilized egg -can differentiate into any cell type -can become an adult organism Pluripotent: Embryonic stem cells -can give rise to any cell -CANNOT become an adult organism -usually taken from the embryo Multipotent/ Unipotent: Adult/ tissue stem cells -can only form specific types of cells/types of tissues -eg. Bone marrow stem cells can form white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets TED Ed video on stem cells and cell specialization: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-are-stem-cells-craig-a-kohn Cancer The cells within our body go through the cell cycle. All of these cells go through the check points of the cell cycle. The cell cycle includes 2 main parts; Interphase and Mitosis. Interphase includes: G1 phase ( first gap), S phase (synthesis), G2 phase Cancer: abnormal cell division (caused by mutations, carcinogens...) Proteins monitor the activities of these cells and surroundings, they also send messages to the Instead of apoptosis, these cells divide uncontrollably ( they rush through interphase) there are two types of cell deaths: Apoptosis ( the controlled death of old cells) and Necrosis ( cells dying due to external factors) G1 Checkpoints include: cell size, nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage S Phase Checkpoints include: DNA synthesis G2 Checkpoints include: cell size, DNA replication There is also a check point in Mitosis: the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint ( checks for chromosome attachment to the spindle) Cells will remain in interphase if: Signals from surrounding cells to not divide Not enough nutrients DNA not replicated DNA is damaged Tumors may be formed from the piling of these cells. The mass of these cells continue to grow with no obvious function. This can reduce the effectiveness of the surrounding tissue. There are 3 classifications of tumors: Benign: does not affect surrounding cells other than crowding Malignant: cancerous; interferes with surrounding cells Metastasis : cells the break away and start another tumor elsewhere; cancerous Diagnosing Cancer: Common Symptoms: swelling, discomfort, fatigue, pain, random loss of weight Imaging Technology: endoscopy, x-Ray,ultra sound, CT scan, MRI Treatment This may stimulate other cells to start replicating uncontrollably and spreading cancer and causing different types of cancer as well. Some treatments for cancer include: Surgery: removing cancer cells physically Radiotherapy: treating tumors at a distance, radiation damages dividing cells & stops them from dividing Chemotherapy: using drugs to slow or stop cancer cells from dividing; can be either injected or taken in orally; has many side effects such as hair loss, fatigue, nausea Biophotonics: beams of light to detect & treat cancer Healthy Cells V.S. Cancerous Cells Cancer Causes..: Mutations ( random changes in DNA) and carcinogens (environmental factors causing cancer, and mutagen, carcinogen that causes mutations). Definition - groups of specialized cells - those cells make the tissue and the tissue makes organs Four Main Types - Epithelial - Muscle - Connective - Nervous Further Specializations - Epithelial: squamous, columnar - Muscle: cardiac, skeletal, smooth - Connective: bone, tendon, blood, adipose (fat) -Nervous: no further specific kinds (More info on specializations on the next page!) Animal Tissue! Epithelial - cells are packed closely together in layers - always in contact with its external environment Muscular - long bundles of fibrous cells - shorten and lengthen to produce movement Connective - cells that are embedded in other tissue -connects pieces of tissue to each other Nervous - long, thin, branching cells - conduct electrical impulses Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous (There's a video on the next page!) Squamous Tissue - makes up skin - protects the body Columnar Tissue - lines the outside of organs - protects & reduces friction by secreting mucus Cardiac Tissue - makes up the heart - produces involuntary and tireless movement Bone Tissue - makes up bones, obviously - bones support the rest of the body Smooth Tissue - makes up organs like the intestines - produces involuntary movement Tendon Tissue - parts like your Achilles - tendons join muscle to bone Skeletal Tissue - makes up muscles like the biceps -used in voluntary movement Adipose Tissue - fat cells, located underneath your skin - provides insulation and protection Want more info? Go to www.msnucleus.org/ membership/html/k-6/lc/humanbio/4/ lchb4_3a.html or www.ivyroses.com/HumanBody/ Tissue/Tissue_4-Tissue-Types.php Blood Cells - both red and white - flows through your veins, distributes substances Nervous Tissue - located in the brain and well, your nerves - coordinate your movement and communicate what your body senses to your brain Contents of the video: it points out where the various types of tissue would be in an arm. It's... Cringeworthy, but you know, if you need it, it's there. Organ System: A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function. Circulatory System: Function: Transports nutrients, gases, and waste throughout the body. Main organs: - Heart - Blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) Nervous System: Function: Detects and responds to changes in the environment. Main organs: - Brain - Spinal Cord - Nerves Endocrine System: Function: Creates and releases hormones to send signals to cells in the body. Main organs: - Thyroid - Adrenal glands - Pancreas Excretory System: Function: Removes waste from the body as urine. Main organs: - Kidneys - Bladder Digestive System: Function: Breaks down food to supply energy and nutrients to the body. Main organs: - Esophagus - Stomach - Small intestine - Large intestine - Pancreas - Gallbladder - Liver Respiratory System: Function: Exchanges gases between the blood and the atmosphere. Main organs: - Trachea - Lungs - Diaphragm - Alveoli Lymphatic System: Function: Defends the body against infections (immune system). Main organs: - Spleen - Lymph nodes Reproductive System: Function: Ensures the survival of the species by producing offspring. Main organs: Males: - Testes - Penis Females: - Uterus - Vagina Integumentary System: Function: Protects the body from damage. Main organs: - Skin - Glands Muscular System: Function: Provide movement, including the movement of materials through some organs. Main organs: - Muscles - Tendons Skeletal System: Function: Provide support, protection of delicate internal organs and to provide attachment sites for the organs. Main organs: - Bones - Ligaments http://youtu.be/sshVEJoGhbQ Click either link to learn more about http://youtu.be/3rCcCU1BqO4 organ systems Interactions between Organ Systems Organ systems work together to accomplish specific tasks Both the circulatory system and respiratory system work together to pump blood to all parts of the body Both of these systems interact with each other to help to perform breathing and to pump blood to the rest of the body when doing specific tasks All organ systems in the body interact with at least one other organ system An example of interacting of organ systems are the digestive system and circulatory system. The digestive system breaks down food and passes through the digestive track. Arteries and veins carry nutrients from the digestive track to all of the parts of the body This video of me explains that relations of interaction of organ systems to me running up stairs. Me running lets me inhale air and helps me get oxygenated blood thought the body and when I breath out my deoxygenated blood goes back to the heart In other animals organ systems mean vary greatly more than others and not all animals have all the organ systems that us humans have Hi my name is bobby An example is this young Eastern newt which has no respiratory system but it absorbs the oxygen through its skin. This is an example of an animal that doesn't have all the organ systems but relies on its Integumentary system to help it breath. In more complex and single celled organisms the circulatory system connects to the whole entire body and it connects to all of the other organ systems in the body Plant Tissues & Organ Systems Meristematic cells= unspecialized cells (plant stem cells), these cells divide and differentiate to form specialized tissues in plants. There are three major types of plant tissues 1. Dermal Tissue= The outermost layer of the plant. There are two types of dermal tissue; ~Periderm: forms bark on woody plants ~Epidermal: layer of cells covering surface of leaves, stems and roots 2. Vascular Tissue= Transport system of nutrients; happens through vascular bundles (nerves). There are two types of vascular tissue; ~Xylem: transport water & minerals from the roots to the leaves *upward transport only* ~Phloem: transport sugar from leaves to roots *downward transport only* 3. Ground Tissue= Photosynthesis takes place here; food and water storage; helps support the plant. There are two types of ground tissue; ~Palisade Layer: site of photosynthesis near the surface ~Spongy Mesophyll: Interior of leaf; retains nutrients and is loosely packed There are three major organ systems in plants 1. Root System= Functions include: anchorage, absorption and storage of water & nutrients 2. Shoot system= Functions include support and photosynthesis, there are two parts to the shoot system; ~Stem:functions include supporting the plant, transports substances through plant ~Leaf: functions include providing photosynthesis for the plant, gas exchange, temperature regulation and protection of the plant. 3. Flower= Functions include sexual reproduction (the pollen produced on the anther will then 'fertilize' ovule to form a seed) The male reproductiv e system of a flower includes the anther and filament which make up the stamen. Need more help? Visit http://onstudynotes.com/ notes/snc2d-grade-10science-biology-planttissues/ The female reproductive system of a flower includes the stigma, style and the ovary which make up the pistil. m e Ch y r t s i - Elements, Atoms, Ions & Periodic Table - Ionic Compounds - Covalent Compound - Chemical Change - Chemical Equations & Law of Conservation of Mass - Types of Chemical Reactions - Acids & Bases ATOMS, ELEMENTS, AND THE PERIODIC TABLE - Elements are identified by their Atomic number and weight. <-- Atomic Number = # of Protons/ Electrons - Cations and Anions combine to form IONIC BONDS. <-- Atomic Symbol - Elements that lose electrons are Cations, Elements that gain electrons are Anions. <-- Element Name <-- Atomic Weight - A Bohr-Rutherford diagram illustrates all electrons, and the protons/neutrons in the nucleus. - Neutrons = atomic weight - protons. A Lewis-dot Diagram illustrates only valence electrons drawn around the element symbol. - Elements forming bonds will take the fastest path to a full orbit. - Metals lose their electrons and become positive. - Nonmetals gain electrons and become negative. - Ex: Be has 2 Valence electrons and gives them away to become a beryllium ion with a +2 charge. Cation/Anion naming The Periodic Table - Elements are organized on the periodic table. - Cations have no suffix. - Ex: A beryllium ion is just named a beryllium ion. - Vertical patterns show families of elements and # of Valence Electrons. - Horizontal patterns show # of electron orbits in the element. - Anions have an "ide" suffix. - Ex: "Chloride" How to draw a BohrRutherford/Lewis dot diagram To learn more: - http://www.chem4kids.com/files/elem_intro.html - https://sites.google.com/a/student.isb.ac.th/evewongworakul-chemistry-unit/bohr-rutherford-diagramslewis-dot-diagrams - http://www.chem4kids.com/files/atom_structure.html Ionic Compounds Ionic Compounds: a compound that is made up of one or multiple metal ions and one or multiple non - metal ions. The metal ions (Cations) become positive. The non - metal ions (Anions) become negative. Don't be confused with covalent compounds! Covalent compounds only happen with to non-metal elements! Think "cooperation" when you see covalent. They share electrons instead of taking them How can I remember which one is which? Need extra help? Go here! Step by step guide! http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-ionic-reactions-definition-examples.html Covalent Bonds Covalent Bond: A bond that results from sharing outer electrons between non-metal atoms Molecule: a particle in which atoms are joined by two or more covalent bonds H Cl O Single Bond: Each atom shares one electron =C = O N Double Bond: Each atom shares two electrons N Triple Bond: Each atom shares three electrons Naming Molecular Compounds: 1. Write the name of the elements in the order they appear in the formula 2. Add "ide" to the second element 3. Add Greek prefixes to the elements to indicate the amount Diatomic Molecule: Any molecule that is bonded with 2 of the same atom is a diatomic molecule Writing Formulas: If the name of the element is given, the Greek prefixes indicate the amount of each atom there is 1. Write the elements in the order they appear from left to right on the periodic table http://ed.ted.com/lessons/howatoms-bond-george-zaidan-andcharles-morton#review 2. Write the combining capacities on he right of each element 3. Switch the combing capacities of each element and reduce Chemical Change Chemical change - a new substance is formed Evidence that there has been a chemical change: 1) Heat, light, or sound is produced 2) Colour change - when bread is toasted, the heat from the toaster makes it change colour 3) Gas is produced 4) New solid formed, e.g. rust forms on an aluminum can due to the chemical reaction between the aluminum and rain 5) Temperature change - when two substances react with each other and heat is produced or absorbed Why are these chemical changes? A chemical bond has been broken and/or formed, and the product(s) has different, new properties Chemical change #3: baking soda mixed with vinegar creates carbon dioxide (the bubbles that are created) What else means a chemical change hasn't occurred? -melting -evaporation -condensation -sublimation -dissolving A common misconception is that boiling water is a chemical change, because there are bubbles being produced. However, these bubbles are still water, just in gaseous state. The boiled water is still water, and there is only water - there is no new substance being created. However, don't assume bubbles are conclusive evidence that a chemical change has occurred. When water is boiled, it becomes water vapour, meaning that it is still water, just in a different state of matter. Additional information Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FofPjj7v414 Website: http://chemistry.about.com/od/matter/a/10-Chemical-Change-Examples.htm Chemical Equations REACTANT(S) PRODUCT(S) A chemical that is present at the start of a chemical reaction :"produces", "forms" , "yields" A chemical that is produced during the chemical reaction Word Equations Uses elements name Aluminum metal reacts with oxygen to form a protective coating, aluminum oxide Aluminum + Oxygen (S) Symbols used to indicate the state of chemicals (G) Skeleton Equations Aluminum oxide (S) Uses elements symbols Iron metal reacts with sulfur to produce iron(ll) sulfide. Energy is released. Fe (S) + S(S) FeS (S)+ Energy Add energy when implied Law of Conservative Mass -Mass of reactants must equal to the mass of products -Must have the same number and type of atoms on the reactant and product side Balancing Equations Tips -add coefficients to chemical formulas -balance compounds first, elements last -balance H and O last - if a polyatomic ion stays together, balance it as a single unit Types of Chemical Reactions Decomposition(D) -One compound on the reactant side forms two separate elements on the product side -Opposite of synthesis Double Displacement(D.D) or Double Replacement -Two compounds on the product side, elements with same charges displace each other -Creates two different compounds on the reactant side Synthesis(S) -Two elements on the reactant side bond to form one compound on the product side -Opposite of decomposition Single Displacement(S.D) or Double Replacement - One element and one compound on the reactant side, single element displaces the element in the compound with the same charge -Element only displaces the element if it is higher on the reactivity series Combustion(C) -A compound burns in oxygen gas -Oxygen gas(O2) is always a reactant -CO2 and H2O are always products -When there isn't enough oxygen to burn compound, carbon monoxide is created which is an incomplete combustion Examples: S Na + Cl2 -> NaCl =numbers to balance equations D S.D H20 -> H2 + O2 HCl + Zn -> ZnCl2 + H2 D.D C BaCl2 + Na2SO4 -> BaSO4 + NaCl CH4 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O Helps how to classify chemical reactions: YouTube video Types of Chemical reactions-Classifications of Chemical Reactions-Clear and Simple Acid : a substance that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Has a pH level less than 7. Base : A substance that releases hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Bases have a pH level greater than 7. pH indicators : change in colour in response to concentration of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions The pH scale : A scale to measure the relative acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a solution. The pH of a solution can range between 0 and 14 Acids and Bases Formulas for Acids and Bases - Acids begin with hydrogen - HCl, H2SO4, H2CO3 -Bases contain a metal first and then hydroxide, carbonate or bicarbonate - KOH, NAHCO3 How do you make an Acid? - React a non metal oxide with water The pH Scale Ex: Sulfur trioxide + water ----> sulfuric acid SO3 + H2O ------> H2SO4 Naming Acids 2 main types - binary and oxyacids BINARY : only 2 elements how to name them : hydroelementic acid Binary Acid Name HF(aq) HCl(aq) Oxyacids Chemical Formula hydroFLUORICacid hydroCHLORICacid use etching glass cleaning concrete OXYACIDS: hydrogen + polyatomic ion --------> polyIONICacid Acid Chemical Formula Related polyatomic ion Polyatomic ion name -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------acetic acid HC2H3O2 (aq) C2H3O2 acetate carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) CO32-(aq) carbonate How do you make a base? React a metal oxide with water Neutralizatio - Acids and bases react together to form water andna salt A neutralization reaction is a special kind of double displacement reaction If the base contains bicarbonate, CO2 gas is produced Video Ex: Sodium oxide + water -----------> sodium hydroxide - Most bases are ionic compounds containing hydroxide, carbonate, or bicarbonate ions -NH3 is an exception - Metal hydroxide, Metal oxide, Metal carbonate Bases Base Chemical Formula Uses -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (aq) Decreasing the acidity of lakes and soil Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 (aq) Making baked goods rise on abrasive cleaner (baking soda) A website with videos about acids and bases : http:// www.neok12.com/Acids-andBases.htm s c i t p O - Properties & Production of Light Law of Reflection Reflection in Plane Mirrors Reflection in Curved Mirrors Curved Mirror Equation Refraction Lenses Thin Lens Equation You see, there are many methods of light production Incandescence(left side): Light from a heated object Examples: sparks, candle flames, filament in a lightbulb Fluorescence(right side): Emission of white light when exposed to UV light Chemiluminescenc e: result of a chemical reaction, littlle/no heat produced-cold light Bioluminescenc e: chemiluminescen ce in living organisms Triboluminescence: crystal molecules split/ sheared by mechanical action Example: chewing, diamonds being cut, Quartz Phosphorescence: Absorbs UV or visible light stores energy and emits later Packed with phosphors: material that is excited by UV light end emits white light Light emitting diode(LED)(left pic): electric current flowing in semi conductors. There's no filament, little heat, energy sufficient Electric discharge: electrons get excited and move to a higher energy state, when electrons move back to smaller orbit energy is released Examples: static, northern lights, lighting, neon signs Laser(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)(right pic): produces waves at the exact same energy level, very intense light 1. Light travels at a tremendously fast speed There are 3 basic properties of light C=3.0x10^8 m/s C=speed of light ~Linear propagation ~light radiates in all directions from a luminous object Demonstration and resources 3. Light travels as waves Light travels in straight lines but individual protons(bundles of energy) travels as waves 2. Light travels in straight lines ->waves of energy of different wavelengths can travel together -> some wavelengths are visible to the human eye and some are not -> Each colour we see is a different wavelength Here's a video on how light travels in a straight line, for extra reinforcement watch this videohttps://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lAUv8u3p-V0 Laws of Reflection Reflection: light bouncing off a non-luminous object Regular/Specular Reflection (smooth surface): light reflects off a smooth surface creating a clear image Ex: light bouncing off smooth water Diffuse Reflection (rough surface): light reflects off a rough surface, image is blurred, difficult to predict where the light will reflect Ray Diagrams for Plane Mirrors **don't forget to draw arrows to show direction** Laws of Reflection 1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection 2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same plane More definitions: Normal: imaginary line where the light strikes the mirror Angle of incidence: the angle of the incident ray to the normal Angle of reflection: the angle of the reflected ray to the the normal More info on http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refln/Lesson-1/The-Law-of-Reflection Reflection in Plane Mirrors Key terms Real image an image that can be seen on a screen as a result of light rays hitting at the image location Virtual image an image formed by light coming from an apparent source; light is not arriving at or coming from the actual image location The acronym SALT Size Attitude Location (in front or behind the mirror) Type (real or virtual) Images in plain mirrors always have the same size as the object, they are always upright, they always appear behind the mirror, and because of this, they are always virtual. Laws of reflection allow light to reflect at the same angle. Since humans always perceive light in a straight line, When the reflected rays enter your eyes, your brain project these light rays behind the mirror in a straight line, forming an image. But since there are no actual light Ray shooting from that location, the image is virtual. Lateral inversion The image in the mirror appears to be backwards compared to how we view the object directly. The word on the front of an ambulance is written backwards to allow the drivers to interpret it on the mirrors of their vehicles. Reflection Curved Mirrors 3 Laws of reflection for curved mirrors Ray // PA reflects→ Focus Ray → Focus reflects// PA Ray → Center reflects→ Center Images appear where the reflected (Real) or extrapolated (Virtual) Format: Size Attitude Location Type Beyond C: Smaller Inverted Between C&F Real At C: Same Inverted Same Real Between C&F: Larger Inverted Beyond C Real At F: no image Between F and mirror: Larger Upright Behind mirror Virtual ^ Concave v Convex No matter what: Smaller Upright Behind mirror Virtual Demonstration of the image characteristics Curved mirror equation -di_ __ _Hi_ _ __ Ho DO Do- Distance of object Di- Distance of image e v a c n o C Concave mirrors are mirrors with a bulge at the middle having the reflective surface inside the bulge. Ho- Height object Hi- Height image 1 1 __ 1 __ - + Di Do F F-focal length Conve x Convex mirrors on the other hand have the same concept but the reflective surface is on the outside s p i t k c i Qu The difference between concave and convex mirrors http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refln/Lesson-3/The-Mirror-Equation COOL LINK Refraction of Light Refraction Medium Angle incidence Total Internal Reflection Bending of light when it enters from one medium to another. Critical angle Substance through which light is travelling Dipersion Angle where light refracts off Refraction of light into separate Incoming Ray that strikes a surface When a light Ray reflects back within 1 substance Light refracting through water droplets create rainbows! -Refraction-new substance causes change in density. Speed of light changes so it bends. - If denser, bends towards normal -If less dense moves towards normal. This is why we have apparent depth, waters density causes refraction which gives us an apparent image since we naturally know light rays are straight. Eg) what is the speed of light in plastic if it's n is 1.456 Additional information: http:// theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/light/node5.html Lenses 1.A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal focus (F). 2.A ray through the secondary principal focus (F1) is refracted parallel to the principal axis. This rule comes from the reversibility of light. 3.A ray through the optical centre (O) continues straight through without being refracted. This is true because the middle part of the lens acts like a very thin rectangular prism with no noticeable sideways displacement. 1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted as it had come through the principal focus (F). 2. A ray that appears to pass through the secondary principal focus (F1) is refracted parallel to the principal axis. 3. A ray through the optical centre (O) continues straight through on its path. For more information go to: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-5/ Refraction-by-Lenses Lens Equation The thin lens equation relates do, di and f. This equation applies to both converging and diverging lenses 1 do + 1 di = 1 f Thin lens equationrelates object distance do,image distance di, and focal length. The magnification equation is used to compare the size of the image with the size of the object. hi di M= =ho d Magnification-the apparent enlargement of an object in an image. Variabl e do Positive Always Negativ e Never di Real image-opposite side as lens as object ho Virtual image-same side of lens as object Measured upward Measured upward hi Measured upward Measured downward F M Converging lens-opposite side of lens as object Upright image Diverging lens-same side of lens as object Inverted image do-is the distance measured along the axis from object to the centre of the lens di-is the distance measured along the axis from the image to the centre of the lens ho-height of object hi-height of image F-is the focal length of the lens M-linear magnification i l C C e t a m e g n a h - Greenhouse Effect - Climate Change The Green House Effect The green house effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planets surface to a temperature above it would be in the absence of its atmosphere. Green house gases can affect the polar ice caps and can make them melt affecting animals, sea levels, and people all over the world. As greenhouse gas emissions from human activities increase, they build up in the atmosphere and warm the climate, leading to many other changes around the world in the atmosphere, on land, and in the oceans. If we do not fix this global issue sea levels will rise in the next 10-20 years and possibly take up major cities. Florida is an example of a place where this will occur if not dealt with. There are multiple ways of stopping green house emissions like reducing carbon footprints by reducing,reusing, and recycling also by turning off lights when not being used, planting more trees and using less hot water because it takes more energy Scientist predict if we keep emitting the amount of fossil fuels we are the temperature is predicted to rise between 2 degrees Celsius to 6 degrees Celsius by the end of the 21st century. If we stay on this pace we could possibly eliminate tons of living things and geographical regions from this world. Climate Change Evidence Rising sea levels Shrinking ice sheets Global temperature rise Causes Increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere lead to a magnified greenhouse effect, resulting in increased temperatures. Changes in the sun also result in warmer temperatures. The energy emitted from the sun varies, resulting in temperature variation. Effects Longer growing season Sea levels projected to rise 1-4 feet by 2100 Average global temperature rising Drought Arctic ice melting Why is the climate changing? The reason as to why the climate is changing is a very controversial subject. Co2 levels from the past can be measured in several ways. http://climate.nasa.gov However, a widely accepted theory is that the increase in CO2 emissions has a direct correlation to temperature increase. Some methods of measuring CO2 levels in the past include using ice cores from glaciers, as well as using tree rings Semester 1 2015-2016