Download Period 1/2 Textbook

SNC2D(N)
Period 1/2
Exam Review
Bi
y
g
o
l
o
-
Characteristics of Life & Cell Theory
Diffusion, Osmosis & Cell Size
Animal Cell Stuctures
Plant Cell Structures
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
Cell Cycle & Mitosis
Cancer
Cell Specialization & Stem Cells
Tissues
Organ Systems
Interactions between Organ Systems
Plant Tissues & Organs Systems
Characteristics of Life
All living things have seven main defining characteristics:
1) Growth and Development
(undergo changes in shape/size (maturation •
:example •
plant ——> seed ——> roots and stems ——> leaves
2) Acquire Energy
• frog
grow
th
• obtain and use energy (sunlight, food) to power
growth, movement, and repair
• includes gaining nutrients (gas exchange)
• plants produce
their own food
(photosynthesis)
• rat
offspring
•
•
•
•
respond and adapt to environment
escape predators
move towards light
migrate for food
• sunflowers
move to face
their light
source
5) Homeostasis
• maintenance of near constant internal
environment
6) Order and Organization
• must be composed of cells
• multicellular organisms have various levels of
organization
3) Reproduction
• give life to offspring
• sexual or asexual
4) Responsiveness
7) Adaptation
• ability to change structure and appearance
over time to adapt to changes in environemnt
• examples:
butterfly mimicry (camo on wings), bird beaks
• brain cells
• this video applies the characteristics
of life to a volcano to determine if it is
living or not
The Cell Theory
1) All living things are made up of cells.
2) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
3) The cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of life.
http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-cell-theory-definition-timeline-parts.html
http://www.ck12.org/biology/Characteristics-of-Life/lesson/Characteristics-of-Life-Advanced/
Chec
link k thes
info s for m e
o
rma
tion re
Diffusion
Factors Affecting Diffusion
Equilibrium: equal
distribution of
molecules in
different areas
1. Temperature: the higher the
temperature the faster the diffusion
2. Surface Area: larger the surface
area the faster the diffusion
3. Concentration Gradient: the higher
the gradient the faster the diffusion
Diffusion: the movement
of molecules from an area
of high concentration to an
area of low concentration
until equilibrium is reached
Molecules are
always moving they always bump
in to each other
and other barriers
4. Size of Particles: the smaller the
particles the faster the diffusion
5. Diffusion Medium: solid --> slowest diffusion
Liquid-->faster diffusion
Gas--> fastest diffusion
Want to Know More?
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
hbase/kinetic/diffus.html
Osmosis
Osmosis: the
diffusion of water
across a selectively
permeable
membrane
A selectively
permeable
membrane only
lets certain
molecules
through (water
molecules) and
leaves others out
(ex. Sugar)
A cell wall has a
selectively
permeable
membrane
3 Things in Respect to Osmosis:
1. Hypotonic Solutions: water
molecules go into the cell because it
wants to go from an area with more
concentration to an area with less
concentration causing the cell to swell in
size and there is a net water gain
2. Hypertonic Solutions: water
molecules go out of the cell because it
wants to go from an area with more
concentration to an area with less
concentration causing the cell to
shrink sizeable there is a net water
loss
3. Isotonic Solutions: the
concentration of water is thesaurus
both inside and outstanding de the
cell so there is no net gain or loss
Both Osmosis and
diffusion move to create
equilibrium, but osmosis is
through a selectively
permeable membrane and
is only with water
Animal Cell Structure
ORGANELLES
Cell Membrane: selectively-permeable
- Gives support and structure to the cell
- Controls movement of materials in and out of
the cell
Golgi Apparatus: stacks of flattened membrane stacks
- Modifies proteins that come from ER, then packages
and transports the proteins
Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that contains all
the organelles
- Provides medium for movement of substances
Mitochondria: has double membrane and its own DNA
- Generates energy for the cell in the form of
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP)
- Site of aerobic respiration: glucose+O2 --> CO2+H2O
Lysosomes: are acidic inside
- Break down food molecules and digest old cell
part
Nucleus:
- controls all the activity of the cell and contains DNA
(genetic information)
Smooth E.R.: network of membranes, connects to
nucleus (no ribosomes)
- Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates
- Detoxifies (poisons, drugs, alcohol, etc.)
Ribosomes:
- Build proteins
Rough E.R.: network of membranes embedded
with ribosomes, connects to nucleus
- Provides transport for molecules through the
cell
- Helps in protein synthesis
Vacuoles: small, many of them
- Store water and food particles until digested by
lysosomes
Cytoskeleton: series of fibres and tubules
- Provides structural support
KEY POINTS
Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, meaning they have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
They have internal membranes to divide the cell into separate compartments
This is important so that:
-Reactions can occur in ideal environments
-Reactions in a series can occur close to one another
-Enzymes for a reaction can be built into the membrane --> speeds up reactions
-Reactions that require different conditions can occur simultaneously within the cell
Why don't animal cells have a cell wall?
The cell wall is very rigid, so if animal cells had a cell wall, it would restrict movement.
For additional information visit: http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/animal-cell.html?view=simple
Plant Cells
Structure And Functions
Mitochondria- Bean shaped, inner membranes. Breaks down sugars to create ATP, energy. (Both plant and animal cells)
Nucleus- Brain of cell. Controls cell's activities.(Both plant and
animal cells)
Cell Membrane- Inside cell wall. Controls what comes in and out of
cell.(Both plant and animal cells)
Vacuoles- Fluid filled sacs, storage area for cells.(Both plant and
animal cells)
Ribosomes- Small bodies floating around free or attached to E.R.
Produce proteins.(Both plant and animal cells)
Cytoplasm- Jelly-like substance. Home to cell's organelles.(Both plant
and animal cells)
Golgi Bodies- Flattened sacs/tubes. Receives proteins, other materials from E.R. Packages, redistributes them.(Both plant and animal cells)
Endoplasmic Reticulum- Network of folded tubes/
membranes. Carries proteins, materials from one part of
cell to the other.(Both plant and animal cells)
Lysosomes- Small, round structures. Use chemicals to break
down large food particles into smaller ones. Breaks down
old cells.(In both cells, although uncommon in plant cells)
Organelles Specific to
Plant Cells
Cell Wall- Outer layer, rigid, stiff, strong, non-living. The cell wall protects and supports the
cell. Allows water and oxygen to pass through. Unlike animal cells, plants do not have a
structural support such as a skeleton, so the cell wall is it's structural support.
Chloroplasts- Green, oval structures. Usually contain chlorophyll. Capture energy from
sunlight and use it to produce food for cells. Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis, and
unlike animals, they cannot grab something and eat it. Chloroplasts help the plant get the
sunlight, to make it's own food(using photosynthesis).
P r ok a ryo t i c
cells
Prokaryotic
a
n
d
Eukaryotic
cells
- no membrane bound organelles
-Single called organelles
-No nucleus
-Do not often need O2
-Simple Structure
E u k a ryo t i c
cells
-Membrane bound organelles
-Large
-Complex structure
-Unicellular or multicellular
organisms
-DNA in nucleus
-Needs CO2
Pros and Cons of
Prokaryotic cells
Pros
-Simple cell structure
-Small
-Single celled organism which
allows it to reproduce and
evolve faster
Microscopic images of
Prokaryotes and
Eukaryotes
Pros and Cons of
Eukaryotic cells
Cons
-Not as advanced as
Eukaryotic cells
-Unicellular which allows the
cell to not make up humans
Pros
-Complex structure allows it to
do more advanced functions
-More membrane bound
organelles which help the cell
have a separate reaction than
other cells
-Nucleus to hold information
Video explaining
Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic cells
http://youtu.be/RQ-SMCmWB1s
h t t p : / / y o u t u . b e /
gfzVWG2DnQ4
http://youtu.be/9o6huiw7u5o
Cons
-Much more complex
-Requires more energy
-Needs more time to
reproduce
Video showing the
similarities and
differences in
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
Cell Cycle & Mitosis
Sometimes cells do not go
into mitosis if
- other cells signal not to
divide
- not enough
- DNA replicated improperly
- DNA is damaged
Interphase
G1 checkpoint
Checks for:
- cell size
- nutrients
- growth
- DNA damage
Longest phase in
unmutated cells
Cells that don't pass
checkpoints go into a
resting phase known
as G0
G1 - goes through cellular respiration; some
cells go into G0 (zero) phase;
Synthesis - DNA replicates; prepares for
division;
G2 - cell prepares to divide; makes more
organelles;
G2 checkpoint
Checks for:
- cell size
- DNA
replication
The G0 phase is a phase
where cells do not go thru
mitosis. Such as nerve cells
which remain in G0.
The cell cycle
Mitosis
Stages of mitosis
Prophase
-
DNA condenses into chromosomes
2 pairs of sister chromatids form chromosomes
nucleus dissolves
centrioles move to opposite poles
Metaphase
- chromosomes form line along middle of cell
- spindle fibres attach to centromeres
Anaphase
- centromere splits chromosome
- sister chromatids split (become daughter chromosomes)
- chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell
Telophase
- new nuclear membrane forms around genetic material
- cell appears to have 2 nuclei
- cell membrane pinches inward
Cytokinesi
-s
in animal cells: cytoplasm splits
- in plant cells: cell plate forms in middle of cell
- 2 new daughter cells are created
- daughter cells go back into interphase
Sometimes cells can mutate and divide
uncontrollably which can form tumours that
lead to cancer
Mitosis Hand Jive
Cell Specialization
Why do cells need to specialize?
-single cellular organisms
(eg.amoeba) can perform all
functions
-multicellular organisms
(eg.humans) require cells with
specific functions
How are cells specialized?
Red blood cells
-flexible discs
-able to easily transport nutrients,
gases and wastes through the body
Skin cells
-closely packed cells in many layers
-allows for protection
Muscle cells
-bundles of cells that can compress
and stretch
-allows for movement
Nerve cells
-long thin cells with branches
-allows for communication and
contact with other cells
What causes specialization?
Remember,
Structure
dictates
-expression of different genes within a
cell
-different distribution of organelles in
the cytoplasm
-variations in temperature and nutrients
-neighbouring cells produce substances
that diffuse to other cells
Fat cells
-cells with lots of empty space
-allows for insulation, protection,
and storage
Photosynthetic cells
-contain lots of chloroplasts
-allows for more energy to be
obtained from the sun to produce
more glucose
Guard cells
-able to open and close
-allows cells to regulate
temperature and gas exchange
Cellular differentiation- the process of
creating specialized cells
Stem cells
-cells that can differentiate into many cell types
Stem cells are...
1. able to differentiate into specialized cells
2.able to regenerate an infinite number of times
3.able to relocate and differentiate where needed
Types of stem cells
Totipotent: Fertilized egg
-can differentiate into any cell type
-can become an adult organism
Pluripotent: Embryonic stem cells
-can give rise to any cell
-CANNOT become an adult organism
-usually taken from the embryo
Multipotent/ Unipotent: Adult/ tissue stem cells
-can only form specific types of
cells/types of tissues
-eg. Bone marrow stem cells can
form white blood cells, red blood
cells and platelets
TED Ed video on stem cells and cell specialization:
http://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-are-stem-cells-craig-a-kohn
Cancer
The cells within our body go through
the cell cycle.
All of these cells go through the
check points of the cell cycle.
The cell cycle includes 2 main parts;
Interphase and Mitosis.
Interphase includes: G1 phase ( first
gap), S phase (synthesis), G2 phase
Cancer: abnormal cell division (caused
by mutations, carcinogens...)
Proteins monitor the activities
of these cells and surroundings,
they also send messages to the
Instead of
apoptosis, these
cells divide
uncontrollably
( they rush through
interphase)
there are two types of cell deaths:
Apoptosis ( the controlled death
of old cells)
and Necrosis ( cells dying due to
external factors)
G1 Checkpoints include:
cell size, nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage
S Phase Checkpoints include:
DNA synthesis
G2 Checkpoints include:
cell size, DNA replication
There is also a check point in Mitosis:
the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint ( checks for
chromosome attachment to the spindle)
Cells will remain in interphase if:
Signals from surrounding cells to not divide
Not enough nutrients
DNA not replicated
DNA is damaged
Tumors may be formed from the piling
of these cells.
The mass of these cells continue to
grow with no obvious function.
This can reduce the effectiveness of
the surrounding tissue.
There are 3 classifications of tumors:
Benign: does not affect surrounding cells
other than crowding
Malignant: cancerous; interferes with
surrounding cells
Metastasis : cells the break away and start
another tumor elsewhere; cancerous
Diagnosing Cancer:
Common Symptoms:
swelling, discomfort, fatigue, pain, random loss of weight
Imaging Technology:
endoscopy, x-Ray,ultra sound, CT scan, MRI
Treatment
This may stimulate other cells to start
replicating uncontrollably and spreading cancer
and causing different types of cancer as well.
Some treatments for cancer include:
Surgery:
removing cancer cells physically
Radiotherapy:
treating tumors at a distance, radiation damages dividing cells
& stops them from dividing
Chemotherapy:
using drugs to slow or stop cancer cells from dividing; can
be either injected or taken in orally; has many side effects such
as hair loss, fatigue, nausea
Biophotonics:
beams of light to detect & treat cancer
Healthy Cells V.S. Cancerous Cells
Cancer Causes..:
Mutations ( random changes in DNA) and
carcinogens (environmental factors causing
cancer, and mutagen, carcinogen that causes
mutations).
Definition
- groups of specialized cells
- those cells make the tissue
and the tissue makes organs
Four Main Types
- Epithelial
- Muscle
- Connective
- Nervous
Further Specializations
- Epithelial: squamous,
columnar
- Muscle: cardiac, skeletal,
smooth
- Connective: bone, tendon,
blood, adipose (fat)
-Nervous: no further specific
kinds
(More info on specializations
on the next page!)
Animal
Tissue!
Epithelial
- cells are packed closely
together in layers
- always in contact with its
external environment
Muscular
- long bundles of fibrous cells
- shorten and lengthen to
produce movement
Connective
- cells that are embedded in
other tissue
-connects pieces of tissue to
each other
Nervous
- long, thin, branching cells
- conduct electrical impulses
Epithelial
Muscular
Connective
Nervous
(There's a video on the next
page!)
Squamous Tissue
- makes up skin
- protects the body
Columnar Tissue
- lines the outside of
organs
- protects &
reduces friction by
secreting mucus
Cardiac Tissue
- makes up the heart
- produces involuntary
and tireless movement
Bone Tissue
- makes up bones,
obviously
- bones support the rest
of the body
Smooth Tissue
- makes up organs like
the intestines
- produces involuntary
movement
Tendon Tissue
- parts like your Achilles
- tendons join muscle to
bone
Skeletal Tissue
- makes up muscles like
the biceps
-used in voluntary
movement
Adipose Tissue
- fat cells, located
underneath your skin
- provides insulation and
protection
Want more info? Go to www.msnucleus.org/
membership/html/k-6/lc/humanbio/4/
lchb4_3a.html or www.ivyroses.com/HumanBody/
Tissue/Tissue_4-Tissue-Types.php
Blood Cells
- both red and white
- flows through your
veins, distributes
substances
Nervous Tissue
- located in the
brain and well,
your nerves
- coordinate
your
movement and
communicate
what your
body senses to
your brain
Contents of the
video: it points
out where the
various types
of tissue would
be in an arm.
It's...
Cringeworthy,
but you know,
if you need it,
it's there.
Organ System: A system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function.
Circulatory System:
Function: Transports nutrients, gases, and waste throughout the body.
Main organs: - Heart
- Blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
Nervous System:
Function: Detects and responds to changes in the environment.
Main organs: - Brain
- Spinal Cord
- Nerves
Endocrine System:
Function: Creates and releases hormones to send signals to cells in the body.
Main organs: - Thyroid
- Adrenal glands
- Pancreas
Excretory System:
Function: Removes waste from the body as urine.
Main organs: - Kidneys
- Bladder
Digestive System:
Function: Breaks down food to supply energy and nutrients to the body.
Main organs: - Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
- Pancreas
- Gallbladder
- Liver
Respiratory System:
Function: Exchanges gases between the blood and the atmosphere.
Main organs: - Trachea
- Lungs
- Diaphragm
- Alveoli
Lymphatic System:
Function: Defends the body against infections (immune system).
Main organs: - Spleen
- Lymph nodes
Reproductive System:
Function: Ensures the survival of the species by producing offspring.
Main organs: Males: - Testes
- Penis
Females: - Uterus
- Vagina
Integumentary System:
Function: Protects the body from damage.
Main organs: - Skin
- Glands
Muscular System:
Function: Provide movement, including the movement of materials through some organs.
Main organs: - Muscles
- Tendons
Skeletal System:
Function: Provide support, protection of delicate internal organs and to provide attachment sites for the organs.
Main organs: - Bones
- Ligaments
http://youtu.be/sshVEJoGhbQ
Click either link to learn more about
http://youtu.be/3rCcCU1BqO4
organ systems
Interactions between Organ Systems
Organ systems work together to accomplish specific tasks
Both the circulatory system and respiratory system work together to
pump blood to all parts of the body
Both of these systems interact with each other to help to perform
breathing and to pump blood to the rest of the body when doing
specific tasks
All organ systems in the body interact with at least one other organ system
An example of interacting of organ systems are the digestive system and
circulatory system. The digestive system breaks down food and passes
through the digestive track. Arteries and veins carry nutrients from the
digestive track to all of the parts of the body
This video of me explains that relations of interaction
of organ systems to me running up stairs. Me running
lets me inhale air and helps me get oxygenated blood
thought the body and when I breath out my
deoxygenated blood goes back to the heart
In other animals organ systems mean vary greatly more than others and not all animals have all the organ
systems that us humans have
Hi my name
is bobby
An example is this young Eastern newt which has no
respiratory system but it absorbs the oxygen through its skin.
This is an example of an animal that doesn't have all the organ
systems but relies on its Integumentary system to help it
breath.
In more complex and single celled organisms the circulatory
system connects to the whole entire body and it connects to
all of the other organ systems in the body
Plant Tissues & Organ Systems
Meristematic cells=
unspecialized cells (plant
stem cells), these cells
divide and differentiate to
form specialized tissues
in plants.
There are three major types of plant tissues
1. Dermal Tissue=
The outermost layer
of the plant. There are
two types of dermal
tissue;
~Periderm:
forms bark on woody
plants
~Epidermal:
layer of cells
covering surface of
leaves, stems and
roots
2. Vascular Tissue=
Transport system of nutrients;
happens through vascular
bundles (nerves). There are two
types of vascular tissue;
~Xylem: transport water &
minerals from the roots to the
leaves *upward transport only*
~Phloem: transport sugar
from leaves to roots *downward
transport only*
3. Ground Tissue=
Photosynthesis takes place
here; food and water
storage; helps support the
plant. There are two types
of ground tissue;
~Palisade Layer: site
of photosynthesis near the
surface
~Spongy Mesophyll:
Interior of leaf; retains
nutrients and is loosely
packed
There are three major organ systems in plants
1. Root System=
Functions include:
anchorage, absorption and
storage of water &
nutrients
2. Shoot system=
Functions include support
and photosynthesis, there
are two parts to the
shoot system;
~Stem:functions
include supporting the
plant, transports
substances through plant
~Leaf: functions
include providing
photosynthesis for the
plant, gas exchange,
temperature regulation
and protection of the
plant.
3. Flower=
Functions include sexual
reproduction (the pollen
produced on the anther will
then 'fertilize' ovule to form
a seed)
The male
reproductiv
e system of
a flower
includes the
anther and
filament
which make
up the
stamen.
Need more help? Visit
http://onstudynotes.com/
notes/snc2d-grade-10science-biology-planttissues/
The female
reproductive
system of a
flower
includes the
stigma, style
and the
ovary which
make up the
pistil.
m
e
Ch
y
r
t
s
i
- Elements, Atoms, Ions & Periodic Table
- Ionic Compounds
- Covalent Compound
- Chemical Change
- Chemical Equations & Law of
Conservation of Mass
- Types of Chemical Reactions
- Acids & Bases
ATOMS, ELEMENTS, AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
- Elements are
identified by their
Atomic number and
weight.
<-- Atomic Number
= # of Protons/
Electrons
- Cations and Anions combine
to form IONIC BONDS.
<-- Atomic Symbol
- Elements that lose electrons are Cations,
Elements that gain electrons are Anions.
<-- Element Name
<-- Atomic Weight
- A Bohr-Rutherford diagram illustrates all
electrons, and the protons/neutrons in the
nucleus.
- Neutrons = atomic weight - protons.
A Lewis-dot Diagram
illustrates only valence
electrons drawn around
the element symbol.
- Elements forming bonds will take the
fastest path to a full orbit.
- Metals lose their electrons and
become positive.
- Nonmetals gain electrons and
become negative.
- Ex: Be has 2 Valence electrons and
gives them away to become a
beryllium ion with a +2 charge.
Cation/Anion naming
The Periodic Table
- Elements are organized on the periodic table.
- Cations have no suffix.
- Ex: A beryllium ion is just named a beryllium ion.
- Vertical patterns show families of elements and # of Valence
Electrons.
- Horizontal patterns show # of electron orbits in the element.
- Anions have an "ide" suffix.
- Ex: "Chloride"
How to draw a BohrRutherford/Lewis dot
diagram
To learn more:
- http://www.chem4kids.com/files/elem_intro.html
- https://sites.google.com/a/student.isb.ac.th/evewongworakul-chemistry-unit/bohr-rutherford-diagramslewis-dot-diagrams
- http://www.chem4kids.com/files/atom_structure.html
Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds: a compound that is made
up of one or multiple metal ions and one or
multiple non - metal ions.
The metal ions (Cations) become positive.
The non - metal ions (Anions) become
negative.
Don't be confused with
covalent compounds!
Covalent compounds only
happen with to non-metal
elements! Think
"cooperation" when you see
covalent. They share
electrons instead of taking
them
How can I remember which
one is which?
Need extra help? Go
here!
Step by step guide!
http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-ionic-reactions-definition-examples.html
Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bond: A bond that results from sharing outer
electrons between non-metal atoms
Molecule: a particle in which atoms are joined by two or
more covalent bonds
H
Cl O
Single Bond: Each atom shares
one electron
=C =
O N
Double Bond: Each atom shares two
electrons
N
Triple Bond: Each atom shares
three electrons
Naming
Molecular
Compounds:
1. Write the name of the elements in
the order they appear in the
formula
2. Add "ide" to the second element
3. Add Greek prefixes to the
elements to indicate the amount
Diatomic Molecule:
Any molecule that is bonded
with 2 of the same atom is a
diatomic molecule
Writing
Formulas:
If the name of the element
is given, the Greek prefixes
indicate the amount of each
atom there is
1. Write the elements in the order
they appear from left to right on
the periodic table
http://ed.ted.com/lessons/howatoms-bond-george-zaidan-andcharles-morton#review
2. Write the combining capacities on
he right of each element
3. Switch the combing capacities of
each element and reduce
Chemical Change
Chemical change - a new substance is formed
Evidence that there has been a chemical change:
1) Heat, light, or sound is produced
2) Colour change - when bread is toasted, the heat from the toaster makes it change colour
3) Gas is produced
4) New solid formed, e.g. rust forms on an aluminum can due to the chemical reaction between
the aluminum and rain
5) Temperature change - when two substances react with each other and heat is produced or
absorbed
Why are these
chemical
changes?
A chemical bond has
been broken and/or
formed, and the
product(s) has different,
new properties
Chemical change #3: baking
soda mixed with vinegar
creates carbon dioxide (the
bubbles that are created)
What else means a chemical change
hasn't occurred?
-melting
-evaporation
-condensation
-sublimation
-dissolving
A common
misconception is that
boiling water is a
chemical change,
because there are
bubbles being
produced. However,
these bubbles are
still water, just in
gaseous state.
The boiled water is still
water, and there is only
water - there is no new
substance being created.
However, don't assume
bubbles are conclusive
evidence that a chemical
change has occurred.
When water is boiled, it
becomes water vapour,
meaning that it is still
water, just in a different
state of matter.
Additional information
Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FofPjj7v414
Website: http://chemistry.about.com/od/matter/a/10-Chemical-Change-Examples.htm
Chemical Equations
REACTANT(S)
PRODUCT(S)
A chemical that is present at the
start of a chemical reaction
:"produces",
"forms" , "yields"
A chemical that is produced
during the chemical reaction
Word Equations
Uses elements name
Aluminum metal reacts with oxygen to form a
protective coating, aluminum oxide
Aluminum
+ Oxygen
(S)
Symbols used to indicate
the state of chemicals
(G)
Skeleton Equations
Aluminum oxide (S)
Uses elements symbols
Iron metal reacts with sulfur to produce iron(ll) sulfide. Energy is released.
Fe (S) + S(S)
FeS (S)+ Energy
Add energy when implied
Law of Conservative Mass
-Mass of reactants must equal to the mass of
products
-Must have the same number and type of atoms on
the reactant and product side
Balancing Equations
Tips
-add coefficients to chemical formulas
-balance compounds first, elements
last
-balance H and O last
- if a polyatomic ion stays together,
balance it as a single unit
Types of Chemical
Reactions
Decomposition(D)
-One compound on the reactant side forms two
separate elements on the product side
-Opposite of synthesis
Double Displacement(D.D)
or Double Replacement
-Two compounds on the product side, elements with
same charges displace each other
-Creates two different compounds on the reactant side
Synthesis(S)
-Two elements on the reactant side bond to form
one compound on the product side
-Opposite of decomposition
Single Displacement(S.D)
or Double Replacement
- One element and one compound on the reactant
side, single element displaces the element in the
compound with the same charge
-Element only displaces the element if it is higher
on the reactivity series
Combustion(C)
-A compound burns in oxygen gas
-Oxygen gas(O2) is always a reactant
-CO2 and H2O are always products
-When there isn't enough oxygen to burn
compound, carbon monoxide is created which is an
incomplete combustion
Examples:
S
Na + Cl2 -> NaCl
=numbers to balance equations
D
S.D
H20 -> H2 + O2
HCl + Zn -> ZnCl2 + H2
D.D
C
BaCl2 + Na2SO4 -> BaSO4 + NaCl
CH4 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
Helps how to classify chemical reactions: YouTube video
Types of Chemical reactions-Classifications of Chemical Reactions-Clear and Simple
Acid : a substance that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved
in water. Has a pH level less than 7.
Base : A substance that releases hydroxide ions when
dissolved in water. Bases have a pH level greater than 7.
pH indicators : change in colour in response to concentration
of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions
The pH scale : A scale to measure the relative acidity or
basicity (alkalinity) of a solution.
The pH of a solution can range between 0 and 14
Acids and Bases
Formulas for Acids and
Bases
- Acids begin with hydrogen
- HCl, H2SO4, H2CO3
-Bases contain a metal first and then
hydroxide, carbonate or bicarbonate
- KOH, NAHCO3
How do you make an Acid?
- React a non metal oxide with water
The pH Scale
Ex: Sulfur trioxide + water ----> sulfuric acid
SO3 + H2O ------> H2SO4
Naming Acids
2 main types - binary and oxyacids
BINARY : only 2 elements
how to name them : hydroelementic acid
Binary
Acid Name
HF(aq)
HCl(aq)
Oxyacids
Chemical Formula
hydroFLUORICacid
hydroCHLORICacid
use
etching glass
cleaning concrete
OXYACIDS: hydrogen + polyatomic ion --------> polyIONICacid
Acid
Chemical Formula
Related polyatomic ion
Polyatomic ion name
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------acetic acid
HC2H3O2 (aq)
C2H3O2
acetate
carbonic acid
H2CO3(aq)
CO32-(aq)
carbonate
How do you make a base?
React a metal oxide with water
Neutralizatio
- Acids and bases react together to form
water andna salt
A neutralization reaction is a special
kind of double displacement reaction
If the base contains bicarbonate, CO2
gas is produced
Video
Ex: Sodium oxide + water -----------> sodium hydroxide
- Most bases are ionic compounds containing hydroxide, carbonate, or
bicarbonate ions
-NH3 is an exception
- Metal hydroxide, Metal oxide, Metal carbonate
Bases
Base
Chemical Formula
Uses
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Decreasing the acidity of lakes and soil
Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 (aq)
Making baked goods rise on abrasive cleaner (baking soda)
A website with videos about
acids and bases : http://
www.neok12.com/Acids-andBases.htm
s
c
i
t
p
O
-
Properties & Production of Light
Law of Reflection
Reflection in Plane Mirrors
Reflection in Curved Mirrors
Curved Mirror Equation
Refraction
Lenses
Thin Lens Equation
You see, there
are many
methods of
light production
Incandescence(left side): Light
from a heated object
Examples: sparks, candle flames,
filament in a lightbulb
Fluorescence(right side): Emission of
white light when exposed to UV light
Chemiluminescenc
e: result of a
chemical reaction,
littlle/no heat
produced-cold
light
Bioluminescenc
e:
chemiluminescen
ce in living
organisms
Triboluminescence: crystal
molecules split/ sheared by
mechanical action
Example: chewing, diamonds being cut,
Quartz
Phosphorescence: Absorbs UV
or visible light stores energy
and emits later
Packed with phosphors:
material that is excited by UV
light end emits white light
Light emitting diode(LED)(left
pic): electric current flowing in
semi conductors. There's no
filament, little heat, energy
sufficient
Electric discharge: electrons
get excited and move to a higher
energy state, when electrons
move back to smaller orbit
energy is released
Examples: static, northern
lights, lighting, neon signs
Laser(Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of
Radiation)(right pic): produces
waves at the exact same energy
level, very intense light
1. Light travels at a
tremendously fast speed
There are 3
basic
properties of
light
C=3.0x10^8 m/s
C=speed of light
~Linear propagation
~light radiates in all directions
from a luminous object
Demonstration and
resources
3. Light travels as waves
Light travels in straight lines
but individual
protons(bundles of energy)
travels as waves
2. Light travels in straight
lines
->waves of energy of different
wavelengths can travel together
-> some wavelengths are visible to
the human eye and some are not
-> Each colour we see is a different
wavelength
Here's a video on how light travels
in a straight line, for extra
reinforcement watch this
videohttps://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lAUv8u3p-V0
Laws of Reflection
Reflection: light bouncing off a non-luminous object
Regular/Specular Reflection (smooth surface): light reflects off a smooth surface creating a
clear image
Ex: light bouncing off smooth water
Diffuse Reflection (rough surface): light reflects off a rough surface, image is blurred, difficult
to predict where the light will reflect
Ray Diagrams for Plane Mirrors
**don't forget to draw arrows to show direction**
Laws of Reflection
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie on the
same plane
More definitions:
Normal: imaginary line where the light strikes the mirror
Angle of incidence: the angle of the incident ray to the
normal
Angle of reflection: the angle of the reflected ray to the
the normal
More info on http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refln/Lesson-1/The-Law-of-Reflection
Reflection in Plane Mirrors
Key terms
Real image an image that can be seen on a screen as a result of light rays
hitting at the image location
Virtual image an image formed by light coming from an apparent source; light
is not arriving at or coming from the actual image location
The acronym SALT
Size
Attitude
Location (in front or behind the mirror)
Type (real or virtual)
Images in plain mirrors always have the same size as the object, they are always upright, they
always appear behind the mirror, and because of this, they are always virtual.
Laws of reflection allow light to
reflect at the same angle. Since humans
always perceive light in a straight line,
When the reflected rays enter your
eyes, your brain project these light
rays behind the mirror in a straight line,
forming an image. But since there are no
actual light Ray shooting from that
location, the image is virtual.
Lateral inversion
The image in the mirror appears to be backwards
compared to how we view the object directly.
The word on
the front of
an ambulance
is written
backwards to
allow the
drivers to
interpret it on
the mirrors of
their vehicles.
Reflection
Curved Mirrors
3 Laws of
reflection for
curved mirrors
Ray // PA
reflects→ Focus
Ray → Focus reflects// PA
Ray → Center reflects→ Center
Images appear where the reflected (Real) or extrapolated (Virtual)
Format: Size Attitude Location Type
Beyond C: Smaller Inverted Between C&F Real
At C: Same Inverted Same Real
Between C&F: Larger Inverted Beyond C Real
At F: no image
Between F and mirror: Larger Upright Behind
mirror Virtual
^ Concave
v Convex
No matter what:
Smaller Upright Behind mirror Virtual
Demonstration of the image
characteristics
Curved mirror equation
-di_ __ _Hi_
_ __
Ho
DO
Do- Distance of object
Di- Distance of image
e
v
a
c
n
o
C
Concave mirrors are
mirrors with a bulge at
the middle having the
reflective surface
inside the bulge.
Ho- Height object
Hi- Height image
1
1 __ 1
__
- + Di Do
F
F-focal length
Conve
x
Convex mirrors
on the other hand
have the same
concept but the
reflective
surface is on the
outside
s
p
i
t
k
c
i
Qu
The difference between
concave and convex mirrors
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refln/Lesson-3/The-Mirror-Equation COOL LINK
Refraction of Light
Refraction
Medium
Angle
incidence
Total Internal
Reflection
Bending of light
when it enters
from one
medium to
another.
Critical angle
Substance
through which
light is
travelling
Dipersion
Angle where
light
refracts off
Refraction of
light into
separate
Incoming Ray
that strikes a
surface
When a light Ray
reflects back
within 1
substance
Light refracting through water droplets create
rainbows!
-Refraction-new substance causes change in density. Speed of light changes
so it bends.
- If denser, bends
towards normal
-If less dense moves
towards normal.
This is why we have apparent depth, waters density causes
refraction which gives us an apparent image since we
naturally know light rays are straight.
Eg) what is the speed of light in plastic if
it's n is 1.456
Additional information: http://
theory.uwinnipeg.ca/physics/light/node5.html
Lenses
1.A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted
through the principal focus (F).
2.A ray through the secondary principal focus (F1) is
refracted parallel to the principal axis. This rule
comes from the reversibility of light.
3.A ray through the optical centre (O) continues
straight through without being refracted. This is true
because the middle part of the lens acts like a very
thin rectangular prism with no noticeable sideways
displacement.
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted as it
had come through the principal focus (F).
2. A ray that appears to pass through the secondary
principal focus (F1) is refracted parallel to the
principal axis.
3. A ray through the optical centre (O) continues
straight through on its path.
For more information go to: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-5/
Refraction-by-Lenses
Lens Equation
The thin lens equation relates do, di and f. This equation applies to both
converging and diverging lenses
1
do
+
1
di
=
1
f
Thin lens equationrelates object distance
do,image distance di,
and focal length.
The magnification equation is used to compare the size of the image with
the size of the object.
hi
di
M=
=ho
d
Magnification-the
apparent enlargement
of an object in an
image.
Variabl
e
do
Positive
Always
Negativ
e
Never
di
Real image-opposite
side as lens as object
ho
Virtual image-same side of
lens as object
Measured upward
Measured upward
hi
Measured upward
Measured downward
F
M
Converging lens-opposite
side of lens as object
Upright image
Diverging lens-same side
of lens as object
Inverted image
do-is the distance
measured along the
axis from object to the
centre of the lens
di-is the distance
measured along the axis
from the image to the
centre of the lens
ho-height of object
hi-height of image
F-is the focal length
of the lens
M-linear
magnification
i
l
C
C
e
t
a
m
e
g
n
a
h
- Greenhouse Effect
- Climate Change
The Green House Effect
The green house
effect is the
process by
which radiation
from a planet's
atmosphere
warms the
planets surface
to a temperature
above it would
be in the absence
of its
atmosphere.
Green house gases
can affect the
polar ice caps and
can make them
melt affecting
animals, sea levels,
and people all
over the world.
As greenhouse gas
emissions from
human activities
increase, they build
up in the
atmosphere and
warm the climate,
leading to many
other changes
around the world in
the atmosphere, on
land, and in the
oceans.
If we do not fix this global
issue sea levels will rise in
the next 10-20 years and
possibly take up major cities.
Florida is an example of a
place where this will occur
if not dealt with.
There are multiple ways of
stopping green house emissions
like reducing carbon footprints
by reducing,reusing, and
recycling also by turning off
lights when not being used,
planting more trees and using
less hot water because it takes
more energy
Scientist predict if we keep emitting the amount
of fossil fuels we are the temperature is
predicted to rise between 2 degrees Celsius to
6 degrees Celsius by the end of the 21st
century. If we stay on this pace we could
possibly eliminate tons of living things and
geographical regions from this world.
Climate Change
Evidence
Rising sea levels
Shrinking ice sheets
Global temperature rise
Causes
Increased greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere lead to a magnified greenhouse
effect, resulting in increased temperatures.
Changes in the sun also result in warmer
temperatures. The energy emitted from the
sun varies, resulting in temperature
variation.
Effects
Longer growing season
Sea levels projected
to rise 1-4 feet by 2100
Average global
temperature rising
Drought
Arctic ice melting
Why is the climate changing?
The reason as to why
the climate is changing
is a very controversial
subject.
Co2 levels from the
past can be measured
in several ways.
http://climate.nasa.gov
However, a widely accepted theory is that
the increase in CO2 emissions has a direct
correlation to temperature increase.
Some methods of measuring CO2 levels in
the past include using ice cores from
glaciers, as well as using tree rings
Semester 1
2015-2016