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Political Marketing
Pertemuan 10
Andri Rusta
Sistem Perwakilan Politik
MARKETING POLITIK
• Marketing:
menghubungkan produsen dg konsumen
secara dua arah dan simultan.
untuk meyakinkan konsumen ttg produk atau
jasa yg dijual memiliki kualitas lebih baik dari
pesaing
Marketing politik:
penggunaan pendekatan atau metode
marketing untuk membantu politikus dan
partai politik agar lebih efisien dan efektif
dalam membangun hub 2 arah dengan
masyarakat
What is Political Marketing? Conceptual Underpinning
• Political marketing in simple terms is a marriage
between two Social sciences – Political science and
Marketing science
(Lees-Marshment, 2001)
• It is referred to as the ‘adaptation’ of commercial
marketing concepts and techniques by political actors to
organise, implement and manage political activities to
realise political goals
(Butler and Collins, 1999; Scammell, 1999; Lees-Marshment, 2001)
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What is Political Marketing? Conceptual Underpinning
• Political marketing in simple terms is a marriage
between two Social sciences – Political science and
Marketing science
(Lees-Marshment, 2001)
• It is referred to as the ‘adaptation’ of commercial
marketing concepts and techniques by political actors to
organise, implement and manage political activities to
realise political goals
(Butler and Collins, 1999; Scammell, 1999; Lees-Marshment, 2001)
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Beda karakter Marketing Politik dan dunia
usaha,menurut Lock dan Harris (1996):
1.
2.
3.
Orang memutuskan memilih calon pada hari yg sama,
tdk demikian dengan pembelian dlm dunia usaha.
Dalam pencoblosan tdk ada label harga langsung, beda dg
membeli produk bagi konsumen hrs membayar.
Namun ada rasa kecewa krn calon kalah.
Pembeli produk usaha bisa menolak barang yg tdk disukai
atau menukarnya bila ada aturan. Tp dlm pemilu, calon
kalah, tidak mungkin ditolak karena dalam pemilu pemilih
hidup dengan pilihan kolektif
Political marketing is turning IDENTITY into the
commercial notion of BRAND (of parties and
candidates).
Political branding is addressed to “consumer”
citizens, whose choice is decided
overwhelmingly by cultural, social and
psychological brand differentiators (Scammel
2007: 180).
4. Calon dlm politik. is produk intangible, tdk mkn
dianalisis menyeluruh, pilihan didsrkan judgement
5. Brand image calon melekat dg partai, bila sdh
mapan sulit diubah
Berbeda dengan produk, dimana brand image
mudah diubah
6. Pemenang pemilu memperoleh hak dan legitimasi
utk mengelola tertib sosial
7. Brand bisnis yang memimpin cenderung memimpin
pasar, tp partai yang menang bisa terpuruk krn
kurang bijak
• Marketing politik hrs dilihat lebih komprehensif:
1. Lebih dari sekedar komunikasi politik
2. Aplikasinya utk seluruh proses organisasi partai politik mulai
kampanye hingga membangun formulasi produk politik spt
membangun simbol, image, platform dan program.
3. Menggunakan konsep marketing scr luas inc. teknik, strategi,
publikasi, ide, program, design, prosesing informasi
4. Menggunakan pendekatan antar disiplin
5. Konsep marketing bisa utk banyak aktifitas politik.
Marketing Politik tidak utk menjual kontestan
ke publik,
tetapi teknik utk memelihara hub. Dg publik
agar tercipta hub. 2 arah yg langgeng
Orientasi dalam marketing Politik
• 1. Orientasi Pasar
– Dalam menyusun program kerja, partai politik harus menganalisis dan
mengevaluasi pasar
• 2. Orientasi Persaingan
– Persaingan dibutuhkan partai politik untuk : mengevaluasi secara
obyektif, memotivasi parpol, memberikan dinamisitas
• 3. Orientasi Konsumen
– Konsumen Partai politik adalah masyarakat yang asprirasinya harus
ditampung dan diterjemahkan dalam program dan platform partai
• 4. Orientasi Pesaing
– Pesaing adalah partai lain yang dianggap ancaman permanen
How is Marketing adapted to Politics?
•
The use of the Marketing Instruments of 4Ps –
1.
2.
3.
4.
Product
Price
Promotion
Place
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Strategi marketing politik
• 1. Product
Menyangkut platform partai, personel karakter,
janji kampanye
• 2. Price
Menyangkut Biaya Kampanye, lobi politik
• 3. Place
Menyangkut Basis massa
• 4. Promotion
Menyangkut advertising, kampanye, publicity
Product function
• In Marketing: tangible / intangible feature of value
for exchange and to manage expectations
(Dibb et al, 2001)
• In Political Marketing: the product is the political
candidate, policy intentions and ideological framework
of the party in sync with each other
(Hanneberg, 2003)
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Price / Cost Function
•
In Marketing: the ‘value’ on what is exchanged
(Dibb et al, 2001)
• In Political Marketing: The psychological construct
made up of ‘voters feelings of national, economic, and
psychological hope or insecurity’
(Niffenegger, 1989)
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Place / Distribution function
• In marketing: The conditions that make available the
exchange offer to the exchange partners
• In Political Marketing: The ranks and file members of a
Party. The “distribution of candidate as a product
surrogate” through speaking events, rallies. And the grass
roots that provide local electioneering support, canvassing
and leafleting for the party campaign
(Hanneberg, 2003; Harris, 2001)
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Promotion / Communication functions
• In marketing: Informing the primary exchange
partners of the offer and its availability
• In Political Marketing: It aids the interpretation and
sense making of the complex political market
(Kotler and Kotler, 1999)
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Other uses of Marketing Concepts
•
-
Segmentation of the Political market
Conservatives – Ashanti region
Liberals – Central region
Modernisers – ‘Yuppies’ (young urban professionals)
•
-
Political Branding
The Party brand
The Policy brand
The Candidate brand
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Political marketing
Empirical phenomenon
 Social change
 Electoral change
 Increasing importance of campaigns
 Professionalization of campaigns
Research paradigm
 Market models of politics
 Expansion of marketing to non-commercial applications
 Marketing model of party behaviour
Political marketing – bureaucratic form of sophistry
 Parallels between professions of sophists and marketers
 Structure of markets and need for marketing
 Consumerism
 Ideological nature of marketing
Social and electoral change
Social change
Decreasing identifiability and relevance of social class
Increasing social mobility
Increased education
Decreasing relevance of ideology
Emergence of new issues/cleavages (Inglehart)
Electoral change
Dealignment
Increasing electoral volatility
Decreasing explanatory power of variables like age, gender, class
Decreasing importance of “projection”/issue alignment
Issue voting; pocketbook voting; retrospective voting
Increasing importance of campaigns
 Campaigns are no longer predominantly about mobilizing
support
 With decreasing base support, voters need to be attracted
through campaigning
 Campaign context impacts on economic, issue, leadership
evaluations
 More floating voters to compete over
 Increasing importance of mass media (new findings
challenging the “minimal effects model” providing
campaigners with reasons to trust in effectiveness of
electioneering)
Professionalization of campaigns
 Exponential increases in campaign spending
 Use of consultants, pollsters, commercial advertisers
 Increasing influence of campaign consultants on policy content
of manifestos
 Policy convergence → need for distinguishing from
competitors
 Market research (focus groups, private polling, directmarketing, database-marketing)
 Changing media focus, from coverage of issues, coverage of
leadership, image and the race, to coverage of strategy, partymedia interaction, and the role of spin
Market models of politics
Schumpeter, Joseph
Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1947)
 “Elitist” model of democracy
 Function of voting: to restrain elites, not to manifest “common will”
Downs, Anthony
An Economic Theory of Democracy (1957)
 Rational choice model of voting
 Assuming material self-interest as primary motivation of elites and
voters
 Median voter theorem: party platforms will converge, to accommodate
voter preferences
 Wellhofer: “Contradictions in Market Models of Politics: the Case of Party
Strategies and Voter Linkages'”, European Journal of Political Research 1990
 Vote production
vs.
 Vote maximization
Expansion of the marketing concept
 Concept first introduced by Stanley Keller
 (Professional Public Relations and Political Power, 1956): understood
marketing to mean persuasion and used it interchangeably with
‘propaganda’
 Expanding application of marketing disciplines beyond
business world
 Philip Kotler (1981) Marketing for Non-profit Organizations
 Emphasis on strategy, marketing-mix, understanding of politics as a
market where voters and candidates/parties, like sellers and buyers,
exchange ‘something of value’
 Broadening of marketing definition by American Marketing
Association
 “Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing,
promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges
that satisfy individual and organisational objectives” (1985)
Marketing and political science
Use of marketing expertise by campaigning
parties/candidates
The observable practice of marketing in political competition
prompted the entry of the concept of marketing into political
science
Early political marketing literature
 Descriptive and anecdotical
Marketing as a scientific approach to campaigning
Mauser (Political Marketing, 1983) defines political marketing
as the
 ‘science of influencing mass behaviour in competitive situations’
Marketing model of party behaviour
Three-stage development of modern business practice
applied to evolution of organizational behaviour of
political parties
“Parties may simply stand for what they believe in, or focus on
persuading voters to agree with them, or change their behaviour to
follow voters’ opinions” (Jennifer Lees-Marshment, 2001: p. 701)
Product-oriented party
Sales-oriented party
Market-oriented party
Product-oriented party
 Ideological
 Representing/leading social movement
 Unresponsive to social change
 Electoral success not an objective in itself
 Electoral goal: vote production/supporter mobilization
Sales-oriented party
 Ideological
 Intra-organizational choice of policies, leadership
 Using market research, advertising, communication techniques to sell
itself, its policies
 Electoral goal: persuasion
Market-oriented party
 Using market intelligence to identify voter demands
 Assessing deliverability of demanded policies
 Assessing intra-party acceptability of policy changes
 Designing product (party manifesto, leadership selection, etc)
accordingly
 Electoral goal: adapting to the market
Assumptions of marketing model
Downsian, rational voters
Exogeneity and measurability of preferences, needs,
demands
Transferability of product/market/marketing metaphor
to the political sphere
Prescriptive/normative claims
Customer (citizen) orientation
Superiority of market-orientation over product- and
sales-orientation
Prediction that market-oriented parties will prevail over sales- or
product-oriented parties
Recommendation for parties to embrace market-orientation
Evolutionary model
Increasing responsiveness of political parties
Improving democracy
Political marketers in ancient Greece –
the Sophists
Rhetoric teachers in ancient Greece (Protagoras,
Thrasymachus, etc.)
Criticized by Plato for providing their
services/rhetorical skills for whatever purpose and
position
 Eristic: arguments aimed at victory rather than at truth
 Anti-logic: the assignment to any argument of a counterargument that
negates it (basis of Hegelian dialectic)
Never accepted as philosophers
 For their suspicion towards metaphysics
 For their pragmatism
Sophism, truth and morality
Relativist definition of truth, morality
There is no absolute truth
Truth, or the right course of action, is what one can
convince the audience of being true or right
Purpose of debating is not (what would be the Platonic
understanding) to jointly discover truth, but to succeed
Morality is a cultural, hence conditional, value
Similar accusations
Style over substance
 “Sophistic is to legislation what beautification is to gymnastics and
appearance to reality” (Plato)
 “Man is the measure of all things” (Protagoras)
Technicians of enticement
Mercenaries
 “The purpose of government is to be efficient and to succeed. This is
the criterion by which it should be judged” (Thrasymachus)
Profane
 “The uncultured whose desire is not for wisdom but for scoring off an
opponent” (Plato)
Techniques, goals and justifications
Similar techniques and goals
Empiricism
Rhetoric
Pragmatism
Similar justifications
Relativism
 Popularity replaces legitimacy
 Efficiency replaces values
 Management replaces politics
Nothing is unjust but a justice that does not succeed
(Thrasymachus)
Morality and law are not absolute, collective values, but principles
defined by those in power
Reconciling reputation with theory
Reputation
 Political marketing considered to be manipulative (spin doctors),
dishonest, close to propaganda, placing style over substance
Effect
 Political marketing practice appears to turn people off (decreasing
turnout in US since 1970s, collapse of turnout under New Labour
since 1997)
 Public demand for politicians of conviction (but consider the paradox
of Margaret Thatcher – the pioneer of political marketing in UK,
nonetheless understood as principled and ideological)
Theory
 Positivistic, presenting political marketing as potentially regenerative
force for democracies (by basing policy on public preferences)
Theoretical shortcoming of political
marketing model
Neglecting departure from classic economic theory
 Markets are not perfect and do not self-regulate
 Production and pricing are not naturally regulated by supply/demand
function
 Political markets are oligopolistic (concentrated, with few competitors)
 Products become secondary to the image/reputation of the firm
 From trader to salesman, intervening in markets
 Marketing is active intervention in markets
 Oligopolistic markets tend to produce socially uneconomical outcomes
Strategic behaviour
 Pricing
 Production
 Labour relations
 Accounting
Consumerism
Market intelligence
 Not just what, where and in what quantities consumers want
 But also why they want it
From homo economicus to buyer motivations,
consumer psychology
Not just discovering demand
But stimulating it
 Potentialities of demand
 Dormand/latent needs
 Consumers are “irrational at least as often as rational, motivated in large
degree by emotions, habits and prejudices; differing widely in personality
structure, in aspirations, ideals and buying behaviours.” (Martineau, It’s
Time to Research the Consumer, 1955)
The ideological nature of marketing
 Reinforcing free market ideal becomes in itself a marketing
exercise, irrespective of factual oligopoly in most commercial
and all political markets
 Downsian theory of democracy
 Ideological in its use of the false analogy of competitive political markets,
with invisible hand mechanism that produces socially desirable outcomes
notwithstanding asocial nature of actors
 The essential features of political marketing
Opinion (replacing values as more malleable building blocks of
collective choice)
Appearance (not whether you are a good leader, or your policy a
good one, but whether you can make it appear thus, counts)
Pragmatism (downgrading elected government to a management
function)