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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS EGYPT PROJEC11, UNIVERSITY OFtCALIFORNIA, DAVIS FOOD POLICY AND NUTRITION AMONG THE FELLAHIN by Sylvia Lane Agricultural Economics University of California, Davis Rosa Maria Berninsone University of California Davic tt\' , GIANNINI FOUNIZATION OF AGRCULTURJkCONOMICS RN° LI NO2 9 1982 WORKING PAPER VVV 11111 11111 FOOD POLICY AND NUTRITION AMONG THE FELLAHIN by Sylvia Lane Agricultural Economics University of California, Davis Rosa Maria Berninsone University of California, Davis Economics Working Paper Series No. 16 Note: The Research Reports of the Agricultural Development Systems: Egypt Project, University of California, Davis, are preliminary materials circulated to invite discussion and critical comment. These papers may be freely circulated but to protect their tentative character, they are not to be quoted without the permission of the author. May, 1981 Agricultural Development Systems: Egypt Project University of California Davis, Ca 95616 FOOD POLICY AND NUTRITION AMONG THE FELLAHIN Sylvia Lane and Rosa Maria Berninsone* Poor nutritional status remains a problem among a large segment of the rural Egyptian population (The Nutrition Institute, 1978, Radwan, Ch. 4). This has important economic implications. Under and malnutrition reduce the quality and the quantity of labor (labor productivity) by contributing to the contraction of non-fatal diseases, occurrence of disabilities and deficient mental functioning all of which are responsible for a large proportion of absenteeism, a lower quality of work and.a slower pace of activity. In population groups with caloric deficiencies an increase in caloric intake. may lead to a more than proportionate increase in output (Amin, p. 7). Once some minimum level of consumption is achieved, labor productivity will vary directly with the nutritive value of food intake. However, the minimum level of food consumption had not been reached by an estimated 44 percent of the rural population in 1975 (Radwan, p. 46) and the problem may persist. Therefore, the effect of food consumption on labor productivity is still of current interest. Achieving satisfactory nutritional levels may play a crucial role in the process of development especially in eliminating poverty. The Nutritional Problem The Nutritional Problem Among Children Protein-calorie deficiency is an Egyptian public health problem, a large part of whose impact is felt by poor rural children, the future rural labor *Sylvia Lane is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of California, Davis and an Economist on the Giannini Foundation. Rose Maria Berninsone is a Graduate Research Assistant in the Department of Agricultural Economics and a doctoral candidate in Economics at the University of California, Davis. 2 force. Among Egyptian children six months to six years of age the most common nutritionally-related condition found is stunted linear growth, defined as children who are less than 90 percent of their expected height for age, consistent with chronic or recurrent under nutrition of calories and protein (The Nutrition Institute, 1978, pp. 90 and 91). Extrapolations indicate some 1.1 million Egyptian children in the 17 governates surveyed in the Nutrition Status Survey of 1978 were so affected. (This would indicate some 1,400,000 children throughout Egypt in 1978 were stunted.) Wasting, defined as children having less than 80 percent of their expected weight for height, and consistent with severe, acute protein-calorie under nutrition, although considerably less prevalent, is estimated.to have affected 29 thousand children in the 17 governates surveyed. This would indicate that about 35,000 children throughout Egypt in 1978 were wasted. Of these, about half were concurrently stunted and wasted, a condition with much more serious health consequences, and more common in upper than in lower Egypt. The extent of the incidence of protein-calorie-deficiency disease throughout Egypt is unknown but there is evidence concerning its presence among the low income rural population (Partwardhan and Darby, p. 151). Anemia, defined as hemoglobin concentrations of less than 10 grams per 100 ml for ages 6-23 months and 11 grams per 100 ml for ages 24-71 months, and for the most part probably due to iron deficiency, is estimated to have affected some 1.4 million children in the 17 governates surveyed in the Nutrition Status Survey of 1978 (The Nutrition Institute, 1978, p. 91). The prevalence of stunting, wasting, anemia and other conditions and diseases attributable to nutritional deficiencies among children is considerably greater in the rural population, particularly in upper Egypt, than in the urban and representatively surveyed populations (The Nutrition 3 Institute, 1978, p..91). age. Their prevalence also varies greatly with children's Wasting becomes increasingly more common after six months of age, reaching a peak between 12 and 24 months and then decreasing. Stunting does not appreciably affect Egyptian children until after 12 months of age, but then becomes more common until after 36 months, after which its frequency also decreases. of age The prevalence of anemia is greatest between 6 and 24 months gradually decreasing thereafter. Each of these conditions is generally more common in children from families of less favorable socio-economic status, as indicated by usage o water, electricity and cooking fuel and by the father's educational level or occupational category (The Nutrition Institute, 1978, p. 93). In the 1978 Nutrition Status Survey it was found that a less adequate nutritional status for the child was associated with a lower educational level for the father. Higher.proportions of children of fathers who were illiterate or had only attended primary school were malnurished. Levels of education were lower rural than in urban areas. Another correlate of malnutrition is child feeding practices, particularly the age of weaning from breast milk. Secession of breast feeding before 12 months of age is associated with both acute under nutrition and anemia, and these conditions become generally more common with delay of supplemental feeding beyond 12 months. In addition, as evidenced by the mother's recall of her child's recent dietary intake, there was a modest correlation between amount and variety of foods consumed, and the indicaters of child malnutrition (The Nutrition Institute, 1978, p. 93). Abdou's study (1965) indicated that the stewed broad beans of foul medames seemed to be the only protein rich food in the list of supplementary foods given to a majority 4 of the surveyed Egyptian infants. Since strong urban and rural differences are evident in infant feeding practices as well as in the prevelance of under nutrition, the relative strengths of the effects of too early weaning or too late or inappropriate food supplementation versus those inherent in the rural condition and poverty are difficult to assess. As for older children, Carter (1969) studied diets of school children in the village of Sindian and found there were deficiencies of calcium, riboflavin, niacin, and probably of iron. The Problem Among Other Segments of the Population During the nutrition survey of 1978 the mother of each child on whom a hemoglobin determination was performed also had a hemoglobin determination. Anemia was widely prevalent among mothers, particularly those who were pregnant or lactating, again with higher rates in rural populations (The Nutrition Institute, pp. 93 and 94). Anemia is a serious problem for the low income Egyptian population and has affected men, women and children (Partwardhan and Darby, p. 57-61). Pellagra is another public health problem. Between 1964 and 1966 there were 10.3 cases of pellagra per 100,000 population in upper Egypt and 83.2 in lower Egypt. Abdou (1965) reported that about .2 percent of the Egyptian suffered from pellagra (equivalence rate of 200 per 100,000 population). prevalence may now be lower. diets. The This disease is associated with maize based It is due to a deficiency of the amino acid tryptophane which is not present in maize. The absence of other cereals such as rice or wheat or of other food stuffs accounts for its presence. Pellagra can also occur on sorghum-based diets (Partwardhan and Darby, p. 40-42). Inadequate intakes of protein, particularly animal protein, and calories probably still remaining a problem among a large segment of the rural Egyptian • 5 population is also evidenced from a number of other studies. Abdou and Mahfouz (1965) reported diets of villagers in Kafr el Hassaa and Mansouriet Namoul in Kaliubieh province were deficient in calcium, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. The nutritional quality of the diets depended upon the income level of the families. Additional evidence concerning the extent of the nutrition problem emanates from Radwan's study of the value of the minimum diet that would satisfy nutritional requirements and the ability of the different sectors of the rural population to purchase it. He evaluated the value of "the least cost diet" which would fulfill minimum nutritional requirements for an Egyptian peasant household for 1958/59, 1964/65 and 1974475, the years in which the family budget surveys were completed. To estimate the minimum diet he used FAO per capita food requirements and translated the 2,250 kilo calories recommended by FAO/WHO to be the minimum energy requirement in consumption bundles consumed by the poor. The least cost diet was calculated by multiplying the quantities of the various types of foods consumed by the unit price prevailing on the market in the corresponding year of the survey. The value of a minimum diet per capita amounted to 13 Egyptian pounds in 1958/59, 16.6 in 1964/65 and 34.8 in 1974/75. Since the average family size for the rural households is 5 members the value of the minimum diet per household amounted to 65, 83 and 157 Egyptian pounds, respectively, for the three survey years (Radwan, p. 40-50). The data were presented for expenditure brackets and it is not possible to estimate the number of households whose expenditure was equal to or less than the value of the minimum diet. However, in the 1960's more than one quarter (27 percent) of the rural families, comprising 3 million persons, 6 were, according to Radwan, below the poverty line and, thus, the households were probably not able to obtain an adequate level of nutrition. By 1974/75, 44 percent, that is 5.8 million people according to his estimates, were living below the poverty line. increase in poverty. Inflation was an important factor explaining this The cost of the minimum. diet per capita more than doubled between 1964/65 and 1974/75. Radwan argued that one can safely classify the majority of owner-cultivators operating small farms as poor in accordance with the definitions of the agrarian reform authorities who estimated that the income from 5 feddans was just equal to the "cost of living." (Radwan, p. 48.) The very high percentage of food in the consumption expenditures of rural households also indicates there may be nutritional problems in this sector. The results of the 1964/65 survey confirm the fact that the percentage of expenditure on food fell with increases in income. Families whose annual or total expenditures were less than 50 Egyptian pounds spent 73 percent of the total on food and beverages. For those whose expenditures were between 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds the percentage of expenditure on food and beverages was 70.3 percent (Fadil, .p. 72.) Due to the relatively high cost of foods rich in protein, the distribution of protein among the low income population appears very uneven. The situation is aggravated by seasonal imbalances, inadequate information concerning nutrition, disease, parasitic entrance stations and waste (FAO, p. 5). Dietary patterns contribute to the problem. rural household has been described as follows: The diet of the low income "maize bread is the main staple, but millet and wheat are more widely used for making bread in the southern portion of the country" (FAO, p. 5). Consumption of maize and millet • • • 7 was apparently more widespread than that of wheat which is of higher nutritional value. upper Egypt. Maize is mainly consumed in lower Egypt and millet in Both are said to be preferred to wheat by the greater part of the rural population because they find them cheaper and more filling (Amin, p. 57). "The remainder of the rural diet consists mostly of cooked beans, lentils, rice, raw onions, turnips, peppers and cucumbers. Eggs and a coarse, • sour variety of cream cheese made of water buffalo or goat milk are occasionally consumed. Because meat is expensive it is regarded as delicacy by the fellahin and eaten, at most, once a week" (FAO, p. 5). The level of consumption of animal protein is very unsatisfactory. (This statement is strongly supported by the results from the study done by Goueli and Abdou. The proportion of animal protein to total protein seems to be about one-sixth. Expenditure on fruit and livestock products is most unequally distributed in both rural and urban areas while expenditures on cereals, starches and pulses are the most equally distributed (Amin, p. 62). According to an analysis of the 1964/65 rural sector budget survey data households with incomes of less than 50 Egyptian pounds per annum allocated 23.8 percent of their expenditures to cereals, and starches, 14 percent to meat, fish and eggs, 6.7 percent to milk and dairy products and 1.4 percent to fruit (Fadil, p. 73). Those who had between 50 and 100 Egyptian pounds in income allocated 24.5 percent of their expenditure to cereals and starches 14.4 percent to meat, fish and eggs, 6.6 percent to milk and dairy products and 1.7 percent to fruit. In comparison, those with incomes between 300 and 400 Egyptian pounds allocated 19.8 percent to cereals and starches, 14.5 percent to meat, fish and eggs, 7.4 percent to milk and dairy products and 2.1 percent to fruit. The income elasticity of demand for food and beverages was about .75 for law income 8 groups, .64 for medium income groups and .55 for higher income groups in rural areas. The elasticity for dry beans, cereals and starchy foods for the lower income groups was relatively high (1.123) in contrast to the elasticities of the higher income groups where the elasticities for cereals, starchy foods and dry beans were negative. He adds that meat, vegetables and other superior foodstuffs, as opposed to starchy roots and coarse grains, are not offered to the rural poor on comparative price calorie terms. cost of 100 calories for 12 commodities appear in Table 1. The money These are all commodities in the consumption baskets of the rural poor and prices used are the ones observed in 1964/65 and 1971. The cheapest means of obtaining calories were obviously maize, millet, wheat flour and beans. Joan Robinson has explained the existence of a well-ordered scale of priorities among wants or what may be termed a heirarchy principle, as follows "generally speaking, wants stand in a heirarchy (though with considerable overlap at each level) and an increment in a family's real income is not devoted to buying a little more of everything at the same level, but to stepping down the heirarchy." (Robinson, p. 354.) Given the poor rural family's low income and the pattern of relative prices for food, it is evident there are a very limited number of combinations that will yield approximately the same level of calories. "The consumption pattern of the rural poor is thus doomed to be marked by the endless monotony of a cereal-based diet as there are few items that could add flavour to the diet which are not very expensive and beyond their reach. An increase in per capita real income may result in the consumption of more onions or some cheap fruits (i.e., dates or melon), rather than a major shift from cereals to the consumption of some meat or fish or citrus fruit" (Fadil, p. 76). 9 TABLE 1 Money Cost of 100 Calories for 12 Commodities Commodity Money cost of 100 calories Worth of the Commodity (in milliemes*) 1964 Money cost of 100 calories Worth of the Commodity (in milliemes*) 1971 Maize 1 1.1 . Millet 1 1.1 Wheat Flour n.a 1.5 Beans 1.8 2.9 Onions. 4.3 7.0 Dates 5.3 n.a Grapes 9.3 n.a Bananas 8.5 9.9 Buffalo Meat 36.6 60.7 Mutton 15.4 22.8 14.9 19.6 Fresh Fish . Eggs IMO MD 24.7 *One piastre = 10 milliemes. Source: F. Shalaby and M.F. Moustafa, "Levels of Nutrition in Relation to Prices," Central Agency for Price Planning, Memo No. 12, (Cairo, June 1972), Table (7) pp. 23-4 in Fadil, op. cit. p. 75. 10 One can appreciate the width of the gap which exists between the actual composition of subsistence bundles for the rural poor and the normative subsistence diet estimated by FAO from Fadirs estimates. He compares the calorie-protein content of the subsistence bundles of the rural poor in the lowest income bracket of less than 25 Egyptian pounds annual expenditure and FAO's recommendations concerning protein-calorie requirements. Table 2. They appear in The intake of the rural poor with an expenditure of less than 25 Egyptian pounds is not sufficient to meet the generally recommended protein-calorie minimum requirement for working people (3,000 calorie intake and 73 grams of protein). The deficiencies are 974 calories and 13.5 grams of protein (Fadil, p. 81). Data from the (1974/75) Family Budget Survey analyzed by the National Bank of Egypt (National Bank of Egypt, p. 317) indicated the general average of family expenditure had increased 145.5 percent between 1958/59 and 1974/75 owing to a 30 percent increase in family expenditure of the less than 200 LE per annum bracket and a 22 percent increase in the 200-800 LE expenditure brackets. Unfortunately, the under 200 LE expenditure bracket was not disaggregated, making it impossible to compare these percentages with those from other studies. But the estimated overall trends are of interest. The. Bank found that in rural areas, "real expenditure in 1974/75 on food and beverages (at 1959/60 prices) declined by 6.2 percent as compared with 1958-59 and by 34.2 percent as compared with 1964/65, despite the apparent increase in monetary expenditure amounting to 132 percent and 58 percent" [respectively]. "Real expenditure on food and beverages declined in relative importance from 65.2 percent to 59.3 percent and then to 54.7 percent during the three years, respectively." These percentages reflect the fact that the Table 2 Calorie-Protein Content of the Subsistance Bundle of the Rural Poor, 1964-1965 Percentage of Daily Protein Intake (in grams) Commodity Group Daily Calorie Intake Percentage of Daily Calorie Intake Cereals and starch 1,420 70.1 42.5 71.4 7.8 10.8 18.2 45 2.2 3.5 5.8 • 143 7.1 0.1 0.2 Milk and diary products 20 1.0 1.1 1.8 Vegetables 17 0.8 1.1 1.8 Fruits 26 1.3 0.4 0.8 197 2,026 9.7 100.0 -59.5 -100.0 158 Pulses Meat, fish and eggs Fats and oils Sugar and sugar products Source: • Computed from the Family Budget Survey Data for 1964/65--averages of the 81. "four rounds" of the survey in Fadil, Percentage • 12 relative importance of the medium and high expenditure categories had increased at the expense of the low expenditure categories (National Bank of Egypt, p. 325). They also reflect the effect of the state subsidy in stabilizing prices of some commodities in the consumption bundle (National Bank of Egypt, p. 326). "The main changes in real expenditure on "food and beverages" in rural areas were the fall in expenditure on "cereals and starches," "pulses," "milk and dairy products" and "sugar and starchy products" as against a rise in real expenditure on "meat, eggs and fish," "oils and fats" and "vegetables." The Bank's comparison of the distribution of food expenditure in rural and urban areas (also based on the data from the 1974/75 Family Budget Survey) indicated: a) "cereals and starches" ranked first among the categories of food consumption in rural areas and "meat, fish and eggs" ranked first in urban areas. This may be explained by differences in income and food habits prevailing in both areas. b) "Pulses" and "oils and fats" were more important in rural areas, reflecting the tendency of rural inhabitants to obtain high food values from sources other than meat, fish and eggs, and c) consumption of milk and dairy products, and fruits was higher in urban than in rural areas, while consumption of vegetables and sugar appeared more important in rural areas (National Bank of Egypt, p. 326). REASONS FOR NUTRITIONAL PROBLEMS For the most part, nutritional problems result from the unequal distribution of income which has left large sectors of the rural population with relatively low levels of income, the relatively high cost of food rich in animal protein, inadequate information concerning nutrition and an unequal distribution of food consumption within the family. Practices of the rural 13 poor families also contribute to nutritional problems. The poor families generally sell the small animals', poultry, eggs and butter fat to meet day to day expenses, pay debts and meet the traditional requirements of certain ceremonial occasions. Moreover, the shortage of fuel in low income homes severely limits the amount of cooking and the types of food that can be prepared. "Baking of the flat maize and fenugreek loaf may take place only once in 7-10 days and one "oven" may be shared by several families on these days" (EO, p. 16). PROPOSED SOLUTIONS Six prime solutions to the problem of under and malnutrition have been suggested in the literature (FAO, pp. 12-18). First, and the one to be the major focus of this study, is to raise the money income of the fellahin and lower-income rural people who are at nutritional risk. Many Egyptian economists argue that the heart of the Egyptian food problem is poverty (Radwan, Ch. 4). The barrier to adequate food consumption for poor people is lack of money to buy food rather than the availability of food. Thus any policies to raise the income of the poor fellahin whether they act through increasing crop prices, improving farming practices and resources, including improving the land and changing of cropping patterns, mechanization, improvement of crop varieties or of livestock, making credit cheaper and/or more readily available, lowering taxes--already nonexistent on land-holdings of fewer than three feddans--increasing the provision of already existing rural food subsidies which increase real income, or other means, deserve consideration. Although the production of food plays a role in the alleviation of hunger, the distribution and consumption of food are the areas where food policy decisions are most acutely felt. Tomich has written, "an 14 Egyptian family's ability to avoid hunger depends on its capacity to grow food or to buy enough at local prices" (p. 32). IFPRI'S calculations show that chronic malnutrition among the Egyptian poor cannot be attributed to limited supplies of food but to the maldistribution of food. does not mean that the poor will have more to eat. Production of more food Incongruous situations of nutritional deficiency and bountiful production within the same family unit within the same villages exist. The conclusion to be drawn is that higher yields increase the income of the fellahin only if rural institutions allow them to retain more of the fruits of their labor (Tomich, p. 35). The second solution suggested is improvement in the nutritional quality of food. Furthermore, because families carry maize and toasted fenugreek seeds to the local mill for grinding the day before baking takes place, the local mill might be the point at which to add supplements to the maize flour. A third solution might be group feeding programs. A school feeding program already exists although it has not been deemed to be very successful (FAO, p. 14), but it might be strengthened and expanded to include mothers and preschool children. A fourth solution is the adoption of a food distribution program. Again, the local mill would be the place where foods to improve poor rural diets could be distributed. A fifth solution might be the promulgation of nutrition education programs. These could be designed to change dietary patterns and improve the nutritional efficiency (quantity of nutrients obtained per dollar of expenditure) of the household. Efforts are being made to implement several of the proposed solutions. Incomes in many low-income, landholding households have been increased • 15 because of increases in the fixed farm prices paid by the government. Prices of paddy rice, lentils, local feed varieties, fava beans, sugarcane, sesame and onions were raised in 1980 (American Embassy, p. 26). Efforts to improve farm practices and resources have included policies to improve feeds, increase the supply of fertilizers, improve drainage systems and make the cropping system intensive, all of which will result in increased farm productivity. The policies listed are all incorporated in the present five-year plan (1980-1984) which places primary emphasis on agriculture due to an official objective of achieving "food security" (American Embassy, p. 3). To quote from the 1980 American Embassy Report on the. agricultural situation, "efforts to expand the agricultural sector focus on increasing productivity on the limited land base expanding the area under cultivation. Cropping intensity is 1.89 and the government hopes to increase the number of crops harvested annually on old lands to 2.1 in 1985 and 2.5 in the year 2000 (American Embassy, p. 6). The government of Egypt hopes to increase the production of certified seeds and expand the area planted to [high yielding] hybrid corn and early-maturing hybrid short staple cotton. Early maturing cotton allows enough time for harvesting an additional crop like wheat or beans (American Embassy, p. 27). There is an increased emphasis on increasing fertilizer production which was estimated to have increased 57 percent over the 1980 level in 1981 (American Embassy, p. 28). According to the 1980-84 development plan, Egypt expects to be self-sufficient in fertilizer by 1982 and government imports of fertilizer are anticipated to increase. Government related entities sell fertilizer to the farmer at subsidized prices but at these prices fertilizer supplied does not meet demand and, therefore, fertilizer is still rationed (American Embassy, p. 28). 16 Improvement of soil drainage is a major objective in the 1980-84 plan which provides that an area of 1.7 million feddans be covered by surface drainage and 1.5 million by subsurface drainage (American Embassy, p. 27). Mechanization has been encouraged through the credit system. Research programs for rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, barley and legumes have been implemented. There are progrpis to upgrade quality and productivity of livestock through cross-breeding, the eradication of internal and external parasites, the increasing of the quantity and improving the quality of animal feeds and the fattening of buffalo calves to heavier weights by using milk replacer (American Embassy, p. 26). The expansion of poultry farms and fish production has been planned (American Embassy, pp. 26-27). Credit may now be more readily available through the Village Banks. Farmers are still provided with seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, farm machinery and feed stuffs at controlled prices on credit. (Quantities provided accord with Department of Agriculture estimated requirements for the various crops to be planted and the acreage (Waterbury, 1978, p.6) but the system has seemingly been more advantageous to larger rather than smaller farmers (Radwan, p. 82 and International Islamic Center, p. 136). Government credit and subsidized inputs are only available if the farmer grows the designated crop (cotton, rice) on the required portion of his land. There is a targeted acreage for cotton and a recommended acreage for several other crops (wheat, maize) for each area. Relatively prosperous fallahin can undertake the production of higher valued crops (fruits, flowers, vegetables) for more lucrative markets because they are not as dependent on government credit and government subsidized inputs (Fadil, p. 35). ^ 17 The real income of many farm families is increased because of the food subsidies. Wheat flour, corn, beans, lentils, edible oil and tallow, red meat, chicken, fish, tea, sugar, and rice are available at state-owned stores to ration card holders (almost all households in Egypt) at government controlled prices that are far below free market prices. Government retail food subsidies were estimated at LE 1,108 for 1981 (American Embassy, p. 28). Wheat and wheat flour .are especially heavily subsidized to keep bread prices low (American Embassy, p. 28). The problem in some rural areas, however, is the distance to the state store. As to the other proposed solutions to the nutrition problem that are listed in this paper (p. 14) group feeding program and nutrition education programs have not received very much emphasis and little has been done to improve the nutritional quality of food. As for the food distribution program, if the food subsidy program is extended and poor households have sufficient income to purchase the components of a minimumly adequate diet, no such program is needed. To conclude, it should be noted that the Egyptian economists who argue that the heart of the Egyptian food problem is poverty are widely supported (Radwan, Goueli and Abdou 5/4/81 cfg P17 Patwardhan and Darby, Tomich). • • • 18 References Abdel-Fadel Mahmoud. "Development, Income Distribution and Social Change in Rural Egypt, 1952-1970." Cambridge University Press, 1975. Abdou, I. A., He. E. All and A. K. Leibaktein. "A Study of Pellagra in the Egyptian Region," Bulletin of Nutrition Institute UAR, 1965, 1:61. Adbou, I.A., and A. H. Mahfouz. 1965. "A Survey of the Diet in the Egyptian Village and Its Seasonal Variation." Bulletin of Nutrition Institute UAR 1:51. American Embassy Cairo. Egypt: Annual Agricultural Situation Report 1980. Report EG-1002, 2YA. Amin, Galal. Egypt." Jan. 31, 1981 "Food Supply and Economic Development with Special Reference to London: Frank Cass, 1966. Carter, J. P., L. E. Grivetti, J. T. Davis, S. Nassif, A. Mansour, W. A. Mousa, A. Atta, V. N. Partwardhan, M. A. Moneim, I.A. Abdou, and W. J. Darby. 1969. Village Boys: "Growth and Sexual Development of Adolescent Egyptian Effects of Zinc, Iron, and Placebo Supplementation." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 22:59. FAO. "Perspective Study of Agricultural Development for the A.R.E." Food Supplies and Nutrition, ESP/ESN/PS/EGY/73/5. FAO.. Report on First FAO/SIDA Seminar on Improvement and Production of Field Food Crops for Plant Scientists from Africa and the Near East, held in Cairo, Egypt 1-20 Sept. 1973. Goueli, A. and Amin I. Abdou. Landowners." FAO SWEITF 104. Rome 1973. "The Food Consumption Patterns of Rural Ministry of Agriculture, Arab Republic of Egypt, January 1981. The Institute of Nutrition. Ministry of Health, Arab Republic of Egypt. Nutrition Status Survey, 1978. p. • 19 The International Islamic Center for Population Studies and Research and Rural Development Committee. Rural Egypt". Cornell University. "Socio-Economic Profile of (Reproduced by National Technical Information Service, US Dept. of Commerce) Cairo, 15 March 1979. • National Bank of Egypt. "Development of Standard of Living in Urban And Rural Areas of Egypt according to Family Budget Data between 1958/59 and 1974/75. Economic Bulletin. Vol. 31. #4, -1978. Partwardhan, Vinayak N. and Darby, William J. Arab Middle East." Radwan, Samir. "The State of Nutrition in the Vanderbilt University Press, Nashville, 1972. "Agrarian Reform and Rural Poverty, Egypt, 1952-1975." International Labour Office, Geneva, 1977. Robinson, Joan. The Accumulation of Capital. Tomich, Thomas P., U.C. Davis. London: Macmillan, 1956. "Population, Poverty and Politics: Compulsion and Response in Egypt's Food Policy." Waterbury, John. "Aish: Egypt's Growing Food Crisis." American Universities. Field Staff Reports, Vol. XIX Nos. 1 and 3, New York, December 1974. Waterbury, John. "Egyptian Agriculture Adrift." American Universities. Field Staff Reports, JW/1/78, New York, 1978. . .