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Dielectrics
Introduction
Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permantly.
Dipole: A dipole is an entity in which equal positive and negative
charges are separated by a small distance..
DIPOLE moment (µele ):The product of magnitude of either of the
charges and separation distance b/w them is called Dipole moment.
µe = q . x  coul – m
q
X
-q
All dielectrics are electrical insulators and they are mainly used to store
electrical energy.
Ex: Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules…
Dielectric Constant
Dielectric Constant is the ratio between the
permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of
free space.

r 
0
The characteristics of a dielectric material are
determined by the dielectric constant and it has no
units.
Electric Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is
called polarization in dielectrics.
Polarizability:
The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called
Polarizability.
The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the
electric field.
E
  E
  polarizabi lity constant
Is a Polarizability constant
Polarization vector:
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric
material is called polarization vector.
n
P
q x
i 1
V
i i
Electric flux Density (D):
Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area and it has
same units of dielectric polarization.
Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of
Electric field strength is
D0   0 E
- -  (1)
At the same point in a medium is given by
D  E
- -  (2)
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising
from the presence of material as compared to free space
i.e,
D   0E  P
- -  (3)
Using equations 2 & 3 we get
E   0 E  P
( -  0 ) E  P
(or) ( r . 0 -  0 ) E  P
( r  1) 0 .E  P
Electric susceptibility:
The polarization vector P is proportional to the
total electric flux density and direction of electric
field.
Therefore the polarization vector can be written
P   0 e E
P
e 
0E
 0 ( r  1) E

0E
e   r 1
Various polarization processes:
When the specimen is placed inside a d.c.
electric field, polarization is due to four types
of processes….
1.Electronic polarization
2.Ionic polarization
3.Orientation polarization
4.Space charge polarization
Electronic Polarization
When an EF is applied to an atom, +vely charged
nucleus displaces in the direction of field and ẽ in opposite
direction. This kind of displacement will produce an electric
dipole with in the atom.
i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field
strength and is given by
 e E
or
e   e E
where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability constant
It increases with increase of volume of the atom.
This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in Monatomic
gases.
e  ____  10-40 F  m2
He
Ne
Ar
0.18
0.35 1.46
It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz)
It is independent of temperature.
Kr
Xe
2.18 3.54
Expression for Electronic Polarization
Consider a atom in an EF of intensity ‘E’ since the nucleus
(+Ze) and electron cloud (-ze) of the atom have opposite
charges and acted upon by Lorentz force (FL).
Subsequently nucleus moves in the direction of field and
electron cloud in opposite direction.
When electron cloud and nucleus get shifted from their normal
positions, an attractive force b/w them is created and the
seperation continuous until columbic force FC is balanced with
Lorentz force FL, Finally a new equilibriums state is
established.
E
+Ze
No field
fig(1)
x
In the presence of field fig (2)
fig(2) represents displacement of nucleus and electron
cloud and we assume that the –ve charge in the cloud
uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius R and the
spherical shape does not change for convenience.
Let σ be the charge density of the sphere
 Ze
4 3
R
3
- Ze represents the total charge in the sphere.

Thus the - ve charge in the sphere of radius ' x' is
4
q e   .  .x 3
3
 ze 4
3
4
.

.
x
3 3
.

R
3


Now Fc 
1
40
.
qe .q p
x2
 ze 3
x
3
R

- - - - - (1)
  ze.x 3 
 z 2e 2 x

ze  

- - - - - (2)
2 
3
3
40 x  R 
40 R
1
Force experienced by displaced nucleus in EF of Strength E
is
FL = Eq = ZeE -----(3)
FL  Fc
 z 2e 2 x
40 R 3
 ZeE
- - - - - (4)
 zex
E
3
40 R
 zex
 zex

3
40 R
e
dipole moment
 E
e
 e  40 R
3
Hence electronic Polaris ability is directly proportional to cube of the
radius of the atom.
Ionic polarization

The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form
molecules and it is mainly due to a relative displacement
of the atomic components of the molecule in the
presence of an electric field.

When a EF is applied to the molecule, the positive ions
displaced by X1 to the negative side electric field and
negative ions displaced by X2 to the positive side of
field.

The resultant dipole moment µ = q ( X1 + X2)..
+
+
+
Electric field
_
anion
cat ion
_
_
+
+
_
x1 x2
+
_
_
+
_
+
_
Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion and
natural frequency and is given by
F  eE  m.w02 x
or
eE
x
m.w02
eE 1 1
 x1  x2  2  m  M 
w0
Where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cat ion
e2 E 1 1
 ionic  e( x1  x2 )  2 m  M 
w0
or  ionic 
ionic
E
e2 1 1
 2 m  M 
w0
This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR).
It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization.
It is independent of temperature.
Orientational Polarization
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The
molecules such as H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., does not carry
any dipole because centre of positive charge and centre of
negative charge coincides. On the other hand molecules like
CH3Cl, H2O,HCl, ethyl acetate ( polar molecules) carries
dipoles even in the absence of electric field.
How ever the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all
the molecular dipoles are oriented randomly when there is no
EF. In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient
them selves in the direction of field as a result the net dipole
moment becomes enormous.



It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz.
It is slow process compare to ionic
polarization.
It greatly depends on temperature.
Expression for orientation polarization
2
N . or
ie.E
Po  N . or ie 
 N . o .E
3kT

o 
2
 or
ie
3kT
   elec   ionic   or i  4 o R 3 
e2
w02

1
M

1
m
 3kT
2
 or
i
This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total Polaris ability in
dielectrics.
Internal fields or local fields
Local field or internal field in a dielectric is the
space and time average of the electric field
intensity acting on a particular molecule in the
dielectric material.
Evaluation of internal field
Consider a dielectric be placed between the
plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there
be an imaginary spherical cavity around the
atom A inside the dielectric.
The internal field at the atom site ‘A’ can be
made up of four components E1 ,E2, E3 & E4.
+ + + + + + + + + ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+
+
+
+
+
+
_
+
A
_
_
Spherical
Cavity
+
_
+ + + +
_
_
_
_
+ + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_
E
Dielectric
material
Field E1:
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density
on the plates
E1 
D
0
D  0E  P
 EP
E1  0
0
E1  E 
P
0
..........(1)
Field E2:
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density induced on the two sides of the dielectric.
P
E2 
...........(2)
0
Field E3:
E3 is the field intensity at A due to the atoms
contained in the cavity, we are assuming a cubic
structure, so E3 = 0.
Field E4:
1.This is due to polarized charges on the surface of
the spherical cavity.
dA  2 . pq.qR
dA  2 .r sin  .rd
dA  2 .r sin d
2
Where dA is Surface area between θ & θ+dθ…
2.The total charge present on the surface area dA is…
dq = ( normal component of polarization ) X ( surface
area )
dq  p cos   dA
dq  2r p cos  . sin  .d
2
3.The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE4 is given by
1
dq
dE4 
40 r 2
The field in θ = 0 direction
dq cos 
dE4 
40
r2
1
1
2
dE4 
(
2

r
p cos  . sin  .d ) cos 
2
40 r
P
dE4 
cos 2  . sin  .d
2 0

4.Thus the total field E4
due to the charges on the
surface of the entire
cavity is
E4 
 dE
4
0



0
P
cos 2  . sin  .d
2 0
P

2 0

2
cos
 . sin  .d

0
let ..x  cos   dx   sin d
P

2 0
1
2
x
 .dx
1
 P x 3 1
 P 1 1

( )1 
(
)
2 0 3
2 0
3
P
E4 
3 0
The internal field or Lorentz field can be written as
Ei  E1  E2  E3  E4
p
p
p
Ei  ( E  )   0 
o o
3 o
p
Ei  E 
3 o
Classius – Mosotti relation:
Consider a dielectric material having cubic structure
, and assume ionic Polarizability & Orientational
polarizability are zero..
i  0  0
polarizati on..P  N
P  N e Ei ......where.,    e Ei
P
where., Ei  E 
3 0
P  N e Ei
P
P  N e ( E 
)
3 0
P
P  N e E  N e
3 0
P
P  N e
 N e E
3 0
N e
P (1 
)  N e E
3 0
N e E
P
...................(1)
N e
(1 
)
3 0
We known that the polarizati on vector
P   0 E ( r  1)............( 2)
from eq n s (1) & (2)
N e E
  0 E ( r  1)
N e
(1 
)
3 0
1
N e
N e E

3 0
 0 E ( r  1)
1
N e
N e E

3 0  0 E ( r  1)
1
N e
N e

3 0  0 ( r  1)
1
N e
3
(1 
)
3 0
 r 1
N e
1

3
3 0
(1 
)
 r 1
N e  r  1

......  Classius Mosotti relation
3 0
r  2



Ferro electric materials or Ferro electricity
Ferro electric crystals exhibit spontaneous
polarization I.e. electric polarization with out
electric field.
Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric
constant.
each unit cell of a Ferro electric crystal carries
a reversible electric dipole moment.
Examples: Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) , Sodium
nitrate (NaNO3) ,Rochelle salt etc..
Piezo- electricity
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical
stress is called as piezo electric effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into
electrical energy and also electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric
stress is applied, the material becomes strained. This strain is
directly proportional to the applied field.
Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc.,
Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors such
as Gas, Zno and CdS are finding applications in ultrasonic
amplifiers.