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AP Human Geography
Ptolemy’s First World Map, c. AD 150
What is Geography?
Geography is a representation of the whole known
world together with the phenomena which are
contained therein.
Ptolemy, Geographia 2nd Century A.D.
Geography is the science of place. Its vision is grand,
its view panoramic. It sweeps the surface of the Earth,
charting the physical, organic and cultural terrain, their
areal differentiation, and their ecological dynamics with
humankind. Its foremost tool is the map.
Leonard Krishtalka, Carnegie Museum of Natural
History, 20th Century A.D.
What is Geography?
Geography is the study of what is
where and why it’s there.
Mr. Buck
Okay, but what exactly is it?
Well, it’s a way of thinking about intellectual problems, both natural and
societal, which emphasizes the importance of spatial relationships.. Take
any social, environmental, or physical question or problem and ask yourself
whether there is a spatial aspect to it. Chances are that space and place
play a role in the explanation and distribution of that question.
Mike Reed, Making It Up As I Go
For example:
Why are so many plant and animal species becoming extinct at the end of
the twentieth century?
Why do there always seem to be been so many wars in Africa?
Why is corn such an important part of a traditional Mexican diet?
Why are some beers known as India Pale Ales?
Divisions of Geography
Physical Geography
Rocks and Minerals
Landforms
Soils
Animals
Plants
Water
Atmosphere
Rivers and Other Water Bodies
Environment
Climate and Weather
Human Geography
Population
Settlements
Economic Activities
Transportation
Recreational Activities
Religion
Political Systems
Social Traditions
Human Migration
Agricultural Systems
Geography is a bridge between the natural and social sciences.
Geography is a holistic or synthesizing science.
What is Human Geography?
The study of how people make places,
how we organize space and society, how
we interact with each other in places
and across space, and how we make
sense of others and ourselves in our
locality, region, and world.
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Geography is a spatial study
This means that geographers look at
the way humans interact within and
with their space.
Spatial – of or pertaining to space on or
near the Earth’s surface
l how are things organized on
Earth?
l how do they appear on the
landscape?
l why? where? so what?
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Spatial distribution
What processes create and sustain the pattern of a distribution?
Map of Cholera Victims
in London’s Soho District
in 1854.
The patterns of victim’s
homes and water pump
locations helped uncover
the source of the disease.
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Key Geographic Concepts
1.
Location
–
2.
3.
Where is it?
Space
l
Patterns and regularities across Earth –
depicted on maps; What is it like there?
Place
l
Unique location of everything on Earth;
What makes a place unique?
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Key Geographic Concepts cont…
4.
5.
Scale
l
truth is scale dependent, phenomena
you study at one scale (e.g. local) may
well be influenced by developments at
other scales (e.g. regional, national, or
global)
Pattern
l
e.g. migration patterns, diffusion of
cultures, languages, religions etc.
10
Key Geographic Concepts cont…
6.
7.
Region
l
Areas formed by distinctive
combinations of features; What
do areas have in common?
Interconnections (Globalization)
l
Relationships of places and
regions; How does one area relate
to another?
11
History of Geography
The oldest existing map appears on a clay tablet made
in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.
They developed the system of dividing a circle into
360 degrees.
Greek and Roman geographers measured (not always
accurately) and devised a grid system of latitudes
and longitudes
Ptolemy (2nd c. CE) created first index of locations
using grid
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Ptolemy’s Map
13
The First Geographers
Eratosthenes
(273-192 BC)
Father of Geography
l First to use term
l
Geographica
Calculated
circumference of the
Earth
Produced map of “Known
World”
l
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Advances in Geography included:
al Idrisi – Muslim geographic
compiler – master of “known
world” circa 1050 CE
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Exploration - 12th to 18th c.
Portugal leads the early
explorations – practical
in nature
The astrolabe, caravel
(ship) and compass
assist mariners from
Europe who must map
what they find
In 1730, John Harrison
discovered longitude.
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Alexander von Humboldt (17691859)
Naturalist
l Traveled extensively
l Scientific descriptions
Focused on humanity’s
interaction with nature
l First to include humans
as part of natural world
18
Carl Ritter (1779-1859)
Organic view of
geography
Universal laws
l Anatomy of the
Earth
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Carl Sauer (1889-1975)
Rejected “environmental
determinism” [human
behavior is determined by
one’s physical environment]
His ideas
l Cultural Landscape =
visible imprint of human
activity on the landscape
l Possibilism = one’s
natural environment only
limits the range of choices
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available to a culture
Environmental Determinism
Is when human behavior, individually
and collectively, is strongly affected
by-even controlled or determined bythe physical environment; climate is
the critical factor in how humans
behave.
21
Possibilism
When the natural environment merely serves to
limit the range of choices available to a
culture.
1. Choices a culture makes depends on their
needs and levels of technology
2. Environmental constraints are less
binding as a culture increases its level of
technology
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Example of Possiblilism
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The Cultural Landscape
The result of the natural environment and
all of the changes to it as a result of a
particular culture. (Carl Sauer)
l
l
Environmental Determinism: environment
is primary determinant of culture.
Possibilism: humans are primary
determinant of culture.
The Natural Landscape
Physical characteristics of a locale
25
The Cultural Landscape
Visible expression of human activity
on the landscape
Created by Carl Sauer
Has layers of imprints from years of
human activity.
Successive occupiers bring own
technological and cultural traditions
and transform the landscape
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Cultural Landscape cont…
Sequent Occupance –
l Layers of imprints in a cultural
landscape that reflect years of
differing human activity.
l When an area has been occupied
and transformed by successive
residents
l Area remains imprinted with each
successive occupation which
creates the cultural landscape
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Sequent Occupance
Athens, Greece
ancient Agora
surrounded by
modern
buildings
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Sequent
Occupance
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
African, Arab, German, British, and Indian layers to the city.
Apartment in Mumbai, India
Apartment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
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The Five Themes of
Geography
Place
Human features
Physical features
Region united by similar physical conditions
Region
United by common cultural traits
People adapt to the environment
Interaction
People change the environment
Absolute location (latitude and longitude)
Location
Relative location (in relation to another place)
Travel from place to place
Movement
Exchange of goods and ideas
WHERE DID THE 5 THEMES
COME FROM?
The 5 Themes of Geography originated
by the National Geographic Society to
fulfill a need for geographers (people
who study the earth and everything on
it) categorize everything they learn.
These 5 places are easy to remember.
Just say the word “PRILM”.
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WHAT IS “PRILM”?
PRILM is a mnemonic device that can be used
to help remember what the 5 Themes of
Geography are. Simply put, take the first
letter of each Theme to create the word
PRILM. They are:
Place
Region
Interaction (Human-Environment)
Location
Movement
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Where
Where
Where
Where
is AIDs?
do we find hunger?
are American blacks?
are cows produced?
Describing Distributions
Describing Distributions
Diffusion
• Relocation
• Hierarchical
• Contagious
• Stimulus
Tobler’s 1st Law of Geography
All things are related. However, all other
things being equal, those things that
are closest together are more related.
Related Concepts:
l
Distance Decay
Place and Sense of Place
Every place is unique. Imagine where you
lived as a child. What made that special?
l
l
l
Sensory
Architecture
Symbolic
Humanistic Geography - values the individual
perspective.
Place and Placelessness (Relph, 1978)
What kinds of
cultural values are
reflected in each of
these American
houses?
Gated community?
Climate Characteristics
Areas where certain climates can be
found
N.Y.C.
Environmentally Determined?
What about Bali,
Indonesia?
Key Concepts:
Core-Periphery
Core
l
l
l
l
l
Periphery
U.S., Europe, Japan,
Australia
Wealthy
Powerful
Controls Media and
Finance
Technologically
advanced
l
l
l
Less Developed
Poor
Dependent upon
Core countries for:
l
l
l
l
Education
Technology
Media
Military Equipment
Key Concepts:
Core-Periphery
Globalization
The increasing
interconnectedness of
different parts of the
world through common
processes of economic,
political, and cultural
change. The economic,
cultural, and
environmental effects
of globalization are
highly contested.
Panama, 1997
Location
Location: Where something is
Absolute Location
• Describes the exact location of a place.
• Often described using Latitude and Longitude or an
exact address (14051 Spriggs Rd.)
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Location
Relative Location
l Describes where a
place is in relation to
something else.
l Ex: Hylton is
between Bottom
Dollar & Saunders
Middle School
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Types of Maps
There are three basic types of maps:
PHYSICAL
POLITICAL
THEMATIC
Physical Maps
Show natural features of
Earth.
Do not contain man
made features
For example, it would
appear as if you were
looking down on Earth
from space.
Political Maps
-show how humans impact landscape.
ie:city names, roads, country borders
-change frequently (physical maps change
very, very slowly through geologic processes)
and must be redrawn often. political map of
the world that is 50 years old is no longer
accurate.
-wars and ethnic conflict are two major causes
political maps change.
Thematic Maps
represent variety of
information
ie:climate,
precipitation,
vegetation, elevation,
population,
life
expectancy
generally used when
looking at single
piece of info
Whenever we attempt to take a round
globe and make it flat, we run into a
problem.
It is impossible to take a round Earth
and make it look flat without stretching
or “messing up” part of the earth.
This part that gets messed up is called:
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There are several ways that a map can be distorted:
Shape:
The shape of the landmasses change
Area:
Distance:
The size of the landmasses change
The distances between the landmasses
change
Direction:
The directions between the landmasses
change
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It is distorted greatly at the poles and is least distorted near the
equator. (ex: Greenland is huge compared to South America)
This projection is useful for ship navigation because the directions
are accurate.
57
The major problem with this projection is that it does not
show all of the earth at one time.
It is useful for airplane navigation because distance is
shown correctly
58
The most commonly used map
It minimizes distortion
It is used most often for Data Representation because it has
minimal distortion.
59
Shows correct sizes and shapes of landmasses by
cutting out parts of oceans
Impossible to measure distances accurately
60
Information can come from a variety of Geographic
Sources
GIS - Geographic
Information Systems
This system collects
information from a
variety of sources and
compiles it by computer
into useful forms.
61
Information can come from a variety of
Geographic Sources
Satellite Images
Images taken from
space have a variety
of different uses:
l Weather
l Cartography
l Defense
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Aerial Photography &
Remote Sensing
63
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North
Compass
Rose
Which way is up?
Maps will usually give you a way to
determine orientation.
This may be a single direction
arrow or a compass rose.
NE
N
W
East
West
SE
S
W
South
65
An image or picture of the way
space is organized as
determined by an individual’s
perception, impression, and
knowledge of that space; also
known as a cognitive map.
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Isoline
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Isoline - Contour
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Dot map
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Choropleth
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Cartogram
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Latitude and Longitude
Lay down
L
O
N
G
W
A
Y
s
Lines
Longitude lines run north and south.
Latitude lines run east and west.
Measure distances in degrees.
Latitude
Longitude
Lines of latitude are
measured north and
south of the equator and
are also called parallels
75
Lines of Longitude are measured
east or west of the Prime
Meridian and are also called
Meridians
0º
76
The Global Grid: Using Latitude and Longitude
Coordinates
Every measurement using
latitude and longitude has a set
of coordinates.
One coordinate will be for
degrees latitude north or south
of the equator
Ex: 30º North lat. is this line
30º South lat. is this line
The other coordinate will be degrees east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian
Ex 30 º East Longitude is this line
30 º West Longitude is this line
Put the two together and you have a location
Ex: 30 ºN, 30 ºE
Latitude should always be listed first. Your north/south will be before your east/west
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coordinate.
Hemisphere (part or half of the world)
The earth is divided into 4 hemispheres:
North, South, East, and West.
We live in the Northern and Western
Hemispheres
78
Where is 0 degree?
equator is 0 degree latitude.
imaginary belt that runs halfway
point between North Pole and
South Pole.
Equator
Where is 0 degree?
prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude.
imaginary line runs through United
Kingdom, France, Spain, western Africa,
and Antarctica.
Directions
Cardinal directions are north, south, east,
and west.
Intermediate directions are northeast,
southeast, southwest and northwest.
Map Legends
Objects or colors represent something on
map.
Religions
Legend
Time Zones
Earth divided into 24 time zones,
corresponding to 24 hours in day.
As earth rotates, sun shines in
different areas, moving from east
to west during course of day.
Places that have the same longitude
will be in same time zone.
Size and Scale
Scale: tells us the relationship between
the distance on the map and the true
distance on the surface of the Earth.
Scale can be represented 3 different
ways:
l Local
l Regional
l Global
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Scale
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Scale is a powerful concept because:
Processes operating at different
scales influence one another.
-
What is occurring across scales
provides context for us to
understand a phenomenon.
-
How to use the Scale
To calculate distance measure the
distance on the map and then place
on the scale to measure the true
difference
Be careful to make
sure you have the
correct unit.
Many maps have
both miles and
kilometers
92
Comparing maps of different scale
Different maps need to show different levels of detail.
Sometimes you need to show a lot detail for a small area, and
sometimes you need to show little detail of a larger area.
A Small-Scale Map shows a large
area with small details.
A Large-Scale Map shows a
small area with large details.
It is good for relative locations
It is good for detailed looks
93 at
small areas
Map Scales
The smaller the right
hand number the larger
the map scale
1:75000 is a more
detailed map than
1:600000 which is a
small scale map
94
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Large-scale
Small-scale
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Scale
Key Concepts
REGION
- an area that shares common
characteristics
l
l
l
Formal - all members legally share a characteristic (U.S.A.)
Functional - defined by a node of activity and distance decay
from center (i.e. cell phone coverage)
Vernacular – common perception of cultural identity (“Deep
South”)
Regions: Areas of Unique
Characteristics
Defined by certain unifying
characteristics
All have boundaries which are
sometimes evident but are
determined by point of view or
perception of the definer
100
Formal/Uniform Region
Areas where specific characteristics are
uniform across space
l
Physical
l
l
Cultural
l
l
Tibet
Francophone World
Economic
l
European Union
101
Formal Region
102
Functional/Nodal Regions
Specific social/economic relationships
tie area together
Usually a “core” and “periphery”
l Metropolitan area
103
Functional Region
104
Functional Regions
Functional Regions
Perceptual/Vernacular Regions
l
l
Ideas in our minds, based on
accumulated knowledge of places and
regions, that define an area of
“sameness” or “connectedness.”
e.g. “the South” or the “Bible Belt”
Most are determined by local residents
and may not be recognized by outsiders
107
Vernacular Regions
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The 455 million people
of North America
produce more goods
and consume more
resources than those
on any other continent.
Canada and the United
States share a 5,500mile (8,850-kilometer)
border, the longest and
one of the friendliest
anywhere.
Some 75 percent of the
more than 260 million people
in the United States live in
towns and cities. Yet
farmers, accounting for less
than 2 percent of the
population, lead the world in
production of soybeans and
corn.
The continent has a relatively
small population of only 319
million. The population of
Brazil almost equals that of all
the other South American
countries combined. Industry
accounts for one-third of the
continent's economic activity.
From 1990 to 1995 the
countries of Europe
mushroomed from 33 to 43,
most of which have access to
the ocean. In these countries
live 686 million people who
speak some 80 languages.
Africa is home to 53
independent
countries and 720
million people.
Africa's population is
expanding by 3
percent a year, the
highest growth rate
of any continent.
Asia consists of more than 40 countries. Its population
exceeds three billion. Asia has the distinction of having the
most populous country in the world, China.
Despite abundant
claims to the
Antarctic
landmass, in 1991
the parties to the
Antarctic Treaty
proposed rules to
safeguard the
continent's
environment and
to prohibit mining
for at least 50
years.
The vastness of the
oceans has long
isolated this country
continent. In this
land that is virtually
the same size as the
contiguous United
States, sheep
outnumber the 18
million people.
9 Nations of North America
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