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Sociology Semester Exam Review What Is Sociology? “...The systematic study of human society ” – Systematic • Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior – Human society • Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa – At the “heart of sociology” • The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society The Sociological Perspective Peter Berger • Seeing the general in the particular – Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. • Seeing the strange in the familiar – Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do – Understanding that society shapes our lives Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills C. Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination • The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society. • Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems. • The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues. Sociological Theory • Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related – Explains social behavior to the real world • Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking – Structural-functional – Social-conflict – Symbolic-interaction Structural-Functional Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism Functional Analysis • Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function • Structure- stable pattern of behavior • Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society • Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus Social Functions • Manifest Functions- Intended • Latent Functions- Unintended • Dysfunctions- Problematic Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis • Tends to be conservative • Tends to dismiss change-”systems” • Overlooks the negative Structural-Functional Paradigm • The basics – A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole – Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability • Key elements: – Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions. – Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Conflict Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources. Conflict Theory • Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change • Is macro level orientation • Argues that Social Order is maintained by direct or indirect exercise of power • “Marginality”-those on the fringe of society • Originated from the work of Karl Marx Social-Conflict Paradigm • The basics: – A macro-oriented paradigm – Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change • Key elements: – Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. – Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. – Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations Symbolic-Interaction Theory A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another. Interactionism • Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction • Is micro level orientation • Argues that society responds through symbolic interaction • Originated from the studies of Max Weber and George Herbert Mead Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm • Max Weber – Understanding a setting from the people in it • George Herbert Mead – How we build personalities from social experience • Erving Goffman – Dramaturgical analysis • George Homans & Peter Blau – Social-exchange analysis Critical Evaluation • Structural-Functional – Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict • Social-Conflict – Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals • Symbolic-Interaction – Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race Sociological Investigation A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation • Scientific sociology – The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior – Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses • Interpretive sociology – The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world • Critical sociology – The study of society that focuses on the need for change Causation • Cause and effect – A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish) • Correlation – A relationship by which two or more variables change together (direct/inverse- positive/negative) • Spurious correlation – An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable • Types of variables – Independent: The variable that causes the change – Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable) Variables • Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the • Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change • Dependent: Grade on the Exam • Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc. Spurious Correlations Shoe Size & Math Skill Scientific Sociology Terminology • Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form • Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case • Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case • Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable Scientific Sociology Terminology • Reliability–Consistency in measurement – Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? • Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure – Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure? If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value Scientific Sociology Terminology • Objectivity – A state of personal neutrality in conducting research • Value-free research – Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. • Replication – Repetition of research by other investigators – Helps limit distortion caused by personal values Limitations of Scientific Sociology • Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. • The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. • Social patterns change. • Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult. Miligram's Experiment • The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control • Administered electric shocks to “Subjects” Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research • Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions • Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) • Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment • “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied Control • To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude. • One method is to break group into experimental and control groups. – Experimental group is exposed to independent variable. – Control group is exposed to a placebo. Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview • Population – The people who are the focus of the research • Sample – The part of the population that represents the whole • Random Sample – Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected Culture The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people’s way of life Terminology • Nonmaterial culture – The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society • Material culture – The tangible things created by members of a society Terminology • Culture shock – Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings • Domestic and foreign travel • Ethnocentrism – A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate based on your own Culture’s standards • Cultural relativism – More accurate understanding-cultural perspective-context of the culture Symbols • Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture • Societies create new symbols all the time. • Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them. – The basis of culture; makes social life possible Symbols • People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture. • Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people. – Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc. Values and Beliefs • Values – Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs. • Beliefs – Specific statements that people hold to be true. – Particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false. Norms Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior • Types – Proscriptive • Should-nots, prohibited – Prescriptive • Shoulds, prescribed like medicine • Mores and Folkways – Mores (pronounced "more-rays") • Widely observed and have great moral significance – Folkways • Norms for routine and casual interaction Social Control Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms • Guilt – A negative judgment we make about ourselves • Shame – The painful sense that others disapprove of our actions Cultural Diversity • Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population. • Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society. Terms • Culture integration – The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system • Example: Computers and changes in our language • Culture lag – The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system • Example: Medical procedures and ethics • Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes Socialization The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture Social Experience Socialization • The lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture Personality • A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting – Could a person’s personality develop without social interaction? Nature and Nurture • Biological sciences–The role of nature – Elements of society have a naturalistic root. • Social sciences–The role of nurture – Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature. – Behaviorism • Nature or nurture? – It is both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more. Social Isolation Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments • Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development. Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle • Years of isolation left both children damaged and only capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation. Genie • Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent disabilities Theories • Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual stages • Piaget- Cognitive development • Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning • Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self” Erik Erickson This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success at one stage prepares us for the next challenge. • Psycho-Social stages • Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order. • Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages • Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life? Agents of Socialization • • • • • • The Family The School The Peer Group The Mass Media Church Government The Family • Most important agent – A loving family produces a happy welladjusted child. • Parental attention is very important – Bonding and encouragement • Household environment – Stimulates development • Social position – Race, religion, ethnicity, class Socialization and Life Course • Each stage of life is linked to the biological process. • Societies organize the life course by age. • Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender. • Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning. Social Interaction In Everyday Life The process by which people act and react in relation to others Social Interaction • The symbolic interaction paradigm – What are the other two major theories? – Do either have implications here? • Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations. Status • A social position that a person holds • Status set – All the statuses held at one time • • • • • • Dance partner Boss Friend Harley club member Sports participant Business manager Type of Status • Ascribed: Involuntary positions • Achieved: Voluntary positions Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses. • Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life. Role The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status • Role set – A number of roles attached to a single status – Example: status of mother • • • • • Disciplinarian Sports authority Dietitian Dr. Mom Pretty mom Role Conflict and Role Strain • Role conflict – Involves two or more statuses • Example: Conflict between role expectations of a police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer • Role strain – Involves a single status • Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager Figure 6.1 Status Set and Role Sets A status set includes all the statuses a person holds at a given time. The status set defines “who we are” in society. The many roles linked to each status define “what we do.” Role Exit • Role exit: Becoming an “ex” – Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic without proper preparation. • The process of becoming an “ex” – Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role. – Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at which time one decides to pursue a new direction. – Learning new expectations associated with new role. – Past role might influence new self. The Social Construction of Reality • The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction. • “Street smarts” • The Thomas theorem – Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences • Ethnomethodology – The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings – Explores the process of making sense of social encounters Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances • Presentation of self or impression management – Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. • Role performance includes – Stage setting – Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture – Example: Going to the doctor and playing the expected patient role.