Download Chapter 1, Developing A Sociological Perspective

Chapter 2
Doing Sociological Research
Chapter Outline
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The Research Process
The Tools of Sociological Research
Prediction, Sampling and Statistical
Analysis
Is Sociology Value-Free?
Research Ethics
Doing Sociological Research
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Sociological research is a tool
sociologists use to answer questions.
The method of research used
depends on the kind of question you
ask.
Sociology and the Scientific
Method
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Sociological research derives from the scientific
method.
Sociological research does not necessarily
proceed in a sequence of rigid steps.
Sociological studies may be based on surveys,
observations, and other forms of analysis, but
they always depend on an empirical foundation.
Research Process
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Develop a research question.
Create a research design.
Gather data.
Analyze data.
Reach conclusions and report results.
Research Process
Qualitative and Quantitative
Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
Does not use statistical
methods.
Uses statistical
methods.
More interpretive,
shows more nuance.
Provides data to
calculate averages and
percents.
Analysis of Variables
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Sociological research seeks to find out whether
(X) affects (Z),which in turn affects (Y).
Human Development Index
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An indicator developed by the United
Nations used to show the differing levels
of well-being in nations around the world.
The index is calculated using a number of
measures, including:
 Life expectancy
 Educational attainment
 Standard of living
Human Development Index
Tools of Sociological
Research
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Questionnaires, Interviews
Participant Observation
Controlled Experiments
Content Analysis
Historical Research
Evaluation Research
The Survey: Polls,
Questionnaires, and Interviews
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A survey questionnaire will solicit data about the
respondent additional questions on a particular
research subject.
In closed-ended questions, people must reply
from a list of possible answers, like a multiplechoice test.
For open-ended questions, the respondent is
allowed to elaborate on her or his answer.
Polling Question
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If a university asks you to complete an
anonymous, written survey asking questions
about your sexual attitudes, experiences, and
behaviors, how likely is it you will agree to
complete the survey?
A.) Very likely
B.) Somewhat likely
C.) Unsure
D.) Somewhat unlikely
E.) Very unlikely
Polling Question
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A university asks you to participate in an
interview asking questions about your cheating
attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The
researchers assure your confidentiality. How
likely is it you will agree to the interview?
A.) Very likely
B.) Somewhat likely
C.) Unsure
D.) Somewhat unlikely
E.) Very unlikely
Participant Observation
(Field Research)
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A method by which the sociologist becomes
both participant and scientific observer of a
group.
Usually, the group is aware the sociologist is
studying them, but not always.
Combines subjective knowledge gained through
personal involvement and objective knowledge
acquired by disciplined recording of what one
sees.
Controlled Experiments
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Highly focused ways of collecting data,
especially useful for determining a pattern of
cause and effect.
Two groups are created:
 An experimental group is exposed to the
causal factor one is examining.
 The control group is not.
All other conditions are equal for both groups.
Content Analysis
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Using cultural artifacts to measure what
people write, say, see, and hear.
Researchers analyze magazine stories
and ads, TV commercials, novels,
movies, popular music, graffiti, and other
cultural elements.
Involves primarily qualitative, but also
quantitative, analysis.
Historical Research
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Examines sociological themes over time.
Commonly done in historical archives,
such as official records, church records,
town archives, private diaries, or oral
histories.
Historical research is usually qualitative,
but quantitative approaches are also
used—for example analysis of trends.
Evaluation Research
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Research is often used to evaluate the
effectiveness of social policy.
If the research is intended to produce
policy recommendations, it is called policy
research.
The research can be either qualitative or
quantitative.
Prediction and Probability
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Sociology analyzes, explains, and predicts
human social behavior in terms of trends and
probabilities.
Example:
 If you are a Black male, 16 to 29, you are 6
times more likely to be arrested for a given
offense than a White male of the same age,
from the same neighborhood and the same
socioeconomic background, for the same
offense, and with the same prior arrest
record.
Sampling
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Often the groups sociologists want to study are
so large or so dispersed that research on the
whole group is impossible.
To construct a picture of the entire group, they
take data from a subset of the.
 A sample is any subset of a population.
 A population is a relatively large collection of
people that a researcher studies and about
which generalizations are made.
Statistics in Sociology
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Percentage is the same as parts per hundred.
 If 22% of U.S. children are poor, for every
100 children randomly selected from the
population, approximately 22 will be poor.
Rate is the same as parts per some number,
such as per 10,000 or 100,000.
 The homicide rate in 2003 was 5.7 killed per
100,000.
 For every 100,000 in the population, 5.7 were
murdered.
Statistics in Sociology
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Mean is the same as an average.
 Adding a list of fifteen numbers and dividing
by fifteen gives the mean for the list.
Median is the midpoint in a series of values
arranged in numerical order.
 In a list of fifteen numbers in numerical order,
the eighth number is the median.
Mode is the value that appears most frequently
in a set of data.
Regional Attitudes Toward
Abortion
Comparison of Research
Techniques
Tool
Qualitative or Quantitative
Survey
Usually quantitative
Participant
observation
Usually qualitative
Controlled
experiment
Usually quantitative
Content analysis
Can be either quantitative or
qualitative.
Comparison of Research
Techniques
Tool
Historical
research
Evaluation
research
Qualitative or Quantitative
Usually qualitative
Can be either quantitative or
qualitative.
Comparison of Research
Techniques
Tool
Pros
Cons
Survey
Large number
of variables.
Difficult to focus
on a few
variables.
Participant
observation
Studies
behavior in
home setting.
Time-consuming
Comparison of Research
Techniques
Tool
Controlled
experiment
Content
analysis
Pros
Cons
Hard to measure
Focus on 2 or
large number of
3 variables.
variables.
Limited by
studying cultural
Unobtrusive
artifacts rather
than attitudes.
Comparison of Research
Techniques
Tool
Historical
research
Evaluation
research
Pros
Cons
Can reflect biases
Saves time
and norms from
and expense. when data was
collected.
Accounts for Limited number of
differences
variables can be
over time.
measured.
Misuse of Statistics
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Citing a correlation as a cause. A correlation
reveals an association between things they do
not necessarily indicate that one thing causes
the other.
Overgeneralizing. Example: Studying only men,
and then generalizing conclusions to both men
and women.
Building in bias. Bias can be built into a
questionnaire by little more than careless
wording.
Misuse of Statistics
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Interpreting probability as certainty.
Example:
 Finding that women are more likely than men
to favor strict gun control only means that
women have a higher probability of favoring
strict gun control than men.
 It does not mean that all women favor strict
gun control and all men do not favor it.
Misuse of Statistics
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Faking data. A famous instance of this occurred
in a study of separated identical twins.
 The researcher wished to show that despite
separation, twins remained similar in certain
traits.
 It was later shown that the data were
fabricated.
Using data selectively. Sometimes a survey
includes many questions, but the researcher
reports on only a few of the answers.
Is Sociology Value-Free?
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Researchers make choices throughout
research that can influence results.
The person surveyed is often not told the
purpose of the survey or who is funding
the study.
Controlled experiments depend on natural
responses to staged situations.
Ethical Considerations in
Research
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Whether one should collect data without
letting research subjects know they are
being studied or observed.
Whether researchers have the right to
hold their data in confidence from the
courts or police without naming their
research subjects.
Quick Quiz
1. The first step in sociological research is:
a. to develop a research question
b. to collect the data
c. to decide on a research design
d. to analyze the data
Answer: a
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The first step in sociological research is to
develop a research question.
2. According to the text, which of the
following is not a step in the research
process?
a. developing conclusions
b. analyzing the data
c. duplicating the research design
d. developing a research question
Answer: c
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According to the text, duplicating the
research design is not a step in the
research process.
3. Which of the following types of research
does participant observation represent?
a. secondary
b. closed-ended
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
Answer: d
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Participant observation represents
qualitative research.
4. In a controlled experiment, which of the
following would not be exposed to the
causal factor being examined?
a. the control group
b. the posttest group
c. the pretest group
d. the experimental group
Answer: a
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In a controlled experiment the control
group would not be exposed to the
causal factor being examined.
5. Research that assesses the effect of
policies and programs on people in
society is called:
a. comparative research
b. evaluation research
c. programmatic research
d. content analysis
Answer: b
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Research that assesses the effect of
policies and programs on people in
society is called evaluation research.