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Second Semester Anatomy Final Review Is it time already? Nervous System Ch 7 What are the two major parts of the nervous system and what are they composed of? • Central nervous system: Brain and Spinal chord • Peripheral nervous system: All other nerves Vs. 2 Major Sub-Parts of the Nervous System • Somatic Nervous System –Called Voluntary Nervous System • Autonomic Nervous System –Involuntary Nervous System: Pgs. 225-227 Parasympathetic –2 Major Branches vs. Sympathetic • Sympathetic Nervous System • Parasympathetic What is the job of the nervous system? • Sensory function: Detect changes in and out of the body. • Motor function: Effect Muscles & glands. • Integrative function: To connect the Sensory and Motor function. Produces thought. What is nervous tissue? • Neurons: or nerve cells. Conduct the impulses. • Neuroglial cells: nurse cells to neurons. Protect, feed, speed up the signal. There are many different types for many different functions. – Schwann, Astrocytes, & Microglea cells What are the parts of a nerve? • • • • • • Axon Dendrite Cell Body Nucleus Myelin Node of Ranvier So… How does a nerve signal reach resting potential? • Nerve has a slightly negative charge inside and a slightly positive charge outside at rest. = Polarized See fig 7.9 • K+ ions are inside, Na+ ions outside. Negative charge can’t diffuse through the membrane. • Active transport is used to push Na+ out and K+ in. More + leave than enter= neg. charge inside. How is an action potential Action reached? Potential • Change in nerve membrane Explained permeability. Na+ rushes in the nerve is depolarized (looses its charge). • K+ than rushes out which repolarizes the nerve cell. • 1/1000 of a second. Both steps together are the action potential. • Active transport soon reestablishes Action Potential the resting potential. What kind of neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft? • Acetylcholine: Muscles • Epinephrine/ Adreniline: Fight or Flight • Norepinephrine: almost the same as epinephrine but has no effect on the heart. • Dopamine: brain functions: not working= schizophrenia and Parkinson's • Seratonin: suppresses pain impulses Do nerve cells reproduce once mature? • No. That is the problem. They can grow axon ends, but once the nucleus is damaged that nerve will not grow back. • Can not go through Mitosis. How does a reflex work? • Reflex Arc • Stimulus Receptor end of a Sensory neuron Interneuron (reflex center, often the spinal cord) Motor neuron Effector (Muscle being moved)Response Reflex Arc Ch 8: Special Senses Eyes, Ear, Tongue, & Touch Some neurons are Sensory Receptors • Naked Nerve Endings=Pain • Meissner’s Corpuscles= Touch • Pacinian Corpuscles= Deep Touch • Many Others: Figure 7.7 External Anatomy of the Eye • Eyelids: Protection, Lubrication • Eyelashes: Protection • Glands: Meibomian and Ciliary –Meibomian: Oil glands, modified sebaceous glands on eyelids –Ciliary: Modified sweat glands. What is the Lacrimal apparatus and what does it do? • Lacrimal apparatus – Lacrimal glands: release tears – Lacrimal ducts (eyelid) and canals (nose) – Nasolacrimal ducts: empties into the nose • Lacrimal Secretion: Tears have antibodies and lysozyme. Cleans, moistens. • Why is it called a healthy cry? What are the internal structures of the eye? • • • • • Sclera: white of the eye Cornea: Clear Iris: colorful part of the eye Pupil: Opening of the Iris Lens and ciliary body: Ciliary body holds the lens in place. The lens focuses light on the back of the eye. What fills the inner eye? • Aqueous Humor: Circulates from the cornea to the Lens through the canal of Schlemm. • Vitreous Humor: In the space behind the eyeball. Keeps the eyes shape, and keeps intraocular pressure stable. • Floaters? • Glaucomma? What lines the back of the eye? • Retina: photoreceptor layer – Rods: Black and white – Cones: Color • Choroid coat: Dark, vascularized layer. Absorbls light. *Non-humans are different • Sclera: Thick, white covering Light travels through the… Cornea to the Aqueous humor to the Pupil to the lens. In the Lens light is bent so that it will hit the Retina of the eye. To get to the Fovea Centrals light must continue to pass through Vitreous humor. Light than hits the Retina were Rods and Cones interpret the image and sent it to the Optic nerve to the brain. External Ear Ear Explained • Auricle • External Auditory Meatus-2.5 cm long leads to Middle ear The Middle Ear • Tympanic Cavity: air-filled space • Tympanic Membrane- ear drum • Pressure changes cause it to vibrate, enhances the sound wave • Auditory Ossicles: smallest bones in the body. Malleus, incus, and stapes. • The Stapes vibrate at the oval window causing fluid in the inner ear to move, stimulating hearing receptors. Inner Ear • Semicircular Canals: maintain equilibrium • Cochlea: hearing • Round Window: the stapes vibrates this in order for your nerves to fire and for you to hear sound. The Nose • Smells using Olfactory Receptors – Yellow-brown mass located at the top of each nasal cavity – Size of a postage stamp. How do olfactory receptor cells smell? • Use Olfactory Hairs – Must be covered in mucus – Chemicals dissolve in mucus – Trigger nerve • Olfactory Nerve – Connects to the Olfactory Bulb in Brain. Travels to temporal lobe for interpretation. – Tied to the limbic system (emotional system) of the brain. Smells stimulate memories. The Tongue And Taste How Do You Taste? • Gustatory cells- respond to chemicals that are dissolved in saliva • Taste buds- receptor sites for tastes. Most are on the tongue. Some are on the roof of the mouth and cheeks • Papillae- on the sides of this structure is where taste buds are found Basic Taste Sensations • Sweet- sugar, OH- groups • Sour- acidic, H+ • Bitter- alkaloid bases, way few H+ bonds • Salty- metal ions Lymphatic System Immune response and Drainage Parts of the Lymphatic System • Lymphatic Capillaries: pick up extra fluid from between cells. • Lymphatic Vessels: Lymph capillaries merge into larger vesicles that carry lymph to the nodes. • Lymph Nodes: Oblong structures that contain while blood cells (lymphocytes) that kill invaders. • Lymph: Fluid in the lymphatic system. Where does the fluid go? • Once clean it empties into the vena cava of the heart. • Puts all spare fluid into the blood stream where it will be filtered in the kidneys. What about the Spleen? • Spleen is a cardio and lymphatic organ • Stores extra blood • Checks blood and removes aged or damaged red blood cells. • Also can play a role in body defense because of the high amount of lymphatic cells stored there. Cardiovascular System What protects the Heart? • The Pericardium • 2 layers – Parietal Pericardium – Visceral Pericardium – Fluid between to reduce friction • Pericarditits: reduced serous fluid. Sticks, heart can’t move. The Heart Valves Job: blood flow in one direction. • Semilunar valves: between the arteries and ventricles – Pulmonary semilunar valve – Aortic semilunar valve Atrioventricular valves: between the atria and ventricles • Tricuspid valve (right) • Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left) Lets Review! The Flow of Blood Differences Between Blood Vessel Types Walls of arteries are the thickest: Have pulse Lumens of veins are larger: Not strongvericose veins. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick to allow for exchanges between blood and tissue Variations in Blood Pressure Human normal range is variable Normal 140–110 mm Hg systolic 80–75 mm Hg diastolic Hypotension Low systolic (below 110 mm HG) Often associated with illness Hypertension High systolic (above 140 mm HG) Can be dangerous if it is chronic Blood Functions of Blood Transportation: oxygen and carbon dioxide nutrients waste products hormones Regulation: pH & body temperature Protection: Immune Response Characteristics Connective tissue pH is slightly alkaline (basic): 7.35 to 7.45 4-6 liters of blood per adult Plasma---55% Formed elements---45% platelets erythrocytes leukocytes Hemoglobin o Iron containing protein o Binds strongly, but reversibly to oxygen o Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites o Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules Leukocytes:White Blood Cells The Immune Response • • • Humoral Immunity (Go animation) Blood Groups AB B A O The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn child The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn) Video Clips that may help • Video Clip • Of • Blood Clot Blood Typing Game The Respiratory System Chapter 13 General Overview of the Respiratory system. • General Function: – Take air from outside the body and bring it into the lungs. O2 in – Filters The lungs – Exchanges CO2 and O2 – Removes CO2 from the body What is Respiration? • The general process of taking air from the outside and bringing it to the body cells • Used for cellular respiration in the mitochondria- to make ATP The Organs of the Respiratory System • Nose – Made of cartilage, anchored by bone and cartilage.- never stops growing. – Nostrils- opening which lets air through. Problem: Deviated Septum: Crooked nostrils – Nostrils have hair- filters or prevents large items from entering any further. • Pharynx = Fork in the road. Shoots food down towards the esophagus (digestive system) and shoots air down to the trachea. • Located dorsal to the Nasal Cavity but superior to the Larynx. The Larynx • Enlarged area atop the trachea. • Made of muscle and cartilage which is bound together by elastic tissue. • Contains the vocal cords. • Sound is produced when air squeezes between the vocal cords, causes vibrations, causing sound waves. Words are formed when the shape of the larynx and oral cavity is changed by moving your lips and tongue. Cilia – tiny hairs Trapped particles - dust, pollen, pollution The Trachea • AKA the Windpipe • Flexible 2.5 cm diameter tube. Starts from below the larynx continuing downward until it splits into 2 bronchi. • Inner walls contain ciliated mucous membranes which trap particles. The trapped particles are pushed up into the pharynx for removal (cough) The Bronchial Tree • From the trachea to the left and right lung. • The trachea branches into the Right and Left Primary bronchus. • Then branches into secondary and finally tertiary bronchi ultimately leading to the bronchiole and the Alveoli. • Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries (where gas exchange takes place). How do you Breathe? • Inspiration: Diaphragm and external intercostals contract, the size of the thoracic cavity increases. Internal pressure= 758 • Expiration: Diaphragm and external intercostals relax, the size of the thoracic cavity decreases. Internal pressure= 762. CPR • ATM: Atmospheric Pressure= 760 Video Chapter 15 The Urinary System Kidneys • Maintain purity and constancy of internal fluids • Filter fluid from blood • Eliminate nitrogenous wastes, toxins and drugs • Convert vitamin D to active form • Regulate blood volume and chemical makeup - salt-water and acid-base balance, BP Regions of Kidney • Renal cortex - light, outer region • Renal medulla - dark, reddish-brown area deep to cortex – medullary pyramids - triangular w/ stripes separated by renal columns Nephrons • Structural and functional unit of kidney – millions – form urine product More on the Nephron !!! Go to Fig. 15.5!! – The Glomerous: 1st part. High pressure area which pushes out waste and returns good blood to the body via the efferent arteriole. This blood will later be transported to the Inferior Vena Cava and returned to the heart. – The Loop of Henley: 2nd part. High salt content. Pulls excess water out of the tube and into the kidney thereby increasing the urine concentration. How is BP regulated? • ADH- antidiuretic hormone secreted from the posterior pituitary prevents excess water loss. – If not functioning: Diabetes Insipidus. 25L/day lost • Aldosterone- regulates Na+ ions. Water follows salt. Na+Cl- increase H2O in blood & Ions. • Renin- regulates aldosterone and increases vaso-constriction. Where does it all go? • Bladder is a small walnut shaped, heavily folded, hollow organ. Expands when water enters it. Pressure increases as the bladder expands. • Urine exits the body through the Urethra. See Fig 15.10. • People produce .6-2.5 liters of urine a day depending on how much a person drinks. Chapter 14 The Digestive System and Body Metabolism: Takes in food, breaks it down into nutrient molecules and absorbs them into the bloodstream, then rids the body of indigestible remains Anatomy of Digestive System • Alimentary canal - digests food and absorbs digested fragments through its lining into the blood • Accessory digestive organs - assist: teeth, tongue, glands Organs of Alimentary Canal • Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal, GI, tract continuous hollow tube that winds through ventral body cavity, open at both ends • mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus: Food Ingestion & Breakdown • Food physically broken down by chewing, mixed w/ saliva • No food absorption in mouth • Pharynx/esophagus have no digestive function - only carry food to stomach Stomach - Food Breakdown • Secretion of gastric juice by sight, smell, and taste of food • presence of food and falling pH stimulate release of hormone gastrin that makes stomach produce enzymes, mucus, & HCl • 2-3 liters gastric juice per day Small Intestine • Chemical digestion begins • Small amount of food processed at a time controlled by pyloric sphincter • Pancreatic enzymes from pancreatic duct and bile from bile duct enter duodenum Small Intestine - 3 subdivisions • Duodenum - curves around head of pancreas • Jejunum - extends from duodenum to ileum • ileum - terminal part that joins large intestine at ileocecal valve Large Intestine Subdivisions • Job: Absorb excess water and compaction. • Cecum - saclike, first part • Appendix - wormlike structure hanging from cecum; ideal bacteria location - appendicitis • Colon - ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid Large Intestine Subdivisions • Rectum • Anal canal - ends in anus which opens to exterior; has external voluntary sphincter and internal involuntary sphincter Digestive System Review Animation Accessory Digestive Organs • Liver: Produces Bile – Gall bladder: Stores bile which is released into the small intestine. • Pancrease: produces enzymes that break down food and neutralize acidic chyme from stomach, produces hormones insulin, glucagon The Endocrine System How our hormones function The Endocrine System Clip What is the Endocrine System? Series of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones into body fluids (blood). Hormone= a chemical secreted by endocrine glands which has a specific effect on another cell or organ. • • • • • • What do hormones control? Reproduction Growth and development Maintain homeostasis Regulation of metabolism Increasing bodies defenses Gets “stuff” through cell membranes. How do hormones work? Hormones are produced by specialized cells in glands. Glands secrete hormones into extra-cellular fluids Blood transfers hormones to target sites Hormones cause changes in target cells What are the two types of hormones? Fig 9.1 • Steroid Hormones Steroid –Soluble in fat. Penetrate cell Hormone membrane. –Reach nucleus • Nonsteroid Hormones –Not soluble in fat. Bind to cell Adrenalin The non Steroid membrane. Hormone –Cascade of chemical reactions. How are Hormone Secretions Controlled? Negative Feedback System Neg. Sys. Gland A secretes causing Gland B to secrete. Gland B’s secretions inhibit A. Like a thermostat. Nerve Control Controlled by the brain. Complicated. There are Positive feedback systemsbut they are limited. Pancreatic Islets The pancreas, Insulin, Glucose, & Diabetes The islets of the pancreas produce hormones Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from beta cells Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis. Male Reproductive System Path and Production of Sperm • Testes- olive size (1-1.5in) – Divided into lobules • Lobules contain 1-4 seminiferous tubules – Between seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells • Interstitial cells produce androgens = testosterone – Sperm leave S.F.T. to go into epididymus. The path continues…. • Epididymus – 20 ft. coiled on posterior lateral side of testis – Use: temporary storage of immature sperm. – Sperm travel approximately 1 ft a day – Sperm gain ability to swim at the end – When stimulated male epididymus contracts to expel sperm into the vas deference. The long and windy road… • Vas Deferens – Runs up epididymus into pelvic cavity – Arches over bladder – Empties into ejaculatory duct. – Vasectomy = vas deference is cut or cauterized. • Sperm produced but reabsorbed • Testosterone still produced. Sex drive and characteristics remain the same. Still traveling…. • Ejaculatory duct- (ejac to shoot forth) – Passes through prostate gland – Merges with urethra – Moves sperm through peristaltic waves. Accessory Glands Seminal Vesicle: 60% of semen – Sugar nourishes,Vitamin C activates sperm – Excretes into the ejaculatory duct • Prostate Gland – Chestnut size and shape – Below bladder, anterior to rectum = milky fluid activates sperm • Bulbourethral Glands: Cleans Urethra Semen • • • • Alkaline pH 7.2-7.6 Neutralizes vaginal pH of 3.5 Dilutes sperm – increasing sperm motility Approximately 1 tsp (5ml) of fluid ejaculated with 50-130 million sperm in each ml. External Genitalia • Scrotum – Job to decrease temp. to keep sperm viable – Changes in scrotal surface area depending on Temp. • Penis or ‘tail’ – Urethra is surrounded by three tubes of erectile tissue – Fill with blood when excited = erection Female Reproductive System And all its many parts. (last chapter in the book in case you were wondering) Birth of Venus Venus De Milo The Duct System • Ovary. Floats freely. Contains and matures eggs. – Part of the Endocrine system. Secretes Estrogen. • Fallopian Tube- 4in/10cm long: catches egg with fimbriae. • Uterus: Receives, retains and nourishes egg • Vagina: 3-4 inches long= birth canal Menstrual Cycle • Day 1-5: Mensus, lasts 3-5 days. Blood loss is ¼ to ½ cup. *Iron pills important. • Day 6-14: Endometrium, glands, and blood supply increase. Ovulation Day 14. • Day 15-28: Corpus luteum secretes progesterone in case of pregnancy. Day 28 endometrium spasms and kinks because the corpus luteum disintegrates. • Pg. 493 Menstrual cycle Cycle Charts More Charts The egg • Released egg is Large, Non-motile, Full of food. Lives 24hrs on average. • Still has to go through the last meiotic division. • Becomes 1N only when sperm penetrates. Pg 489 • In the fallopian tube it is fertilized and becomes a blastula. What happens to the egg? • • • • Zygote= egg & sperm combine Cleavage= Egg splits into 2 cells Blastula= a hollow ball of cells Gastrula= caved in blastula with 3 layers – Ectoderm = skin and nerves – Mesoderm= muscles, bones, reproductive sys. – Endoderm= Intestine, Respiratory sys. Mammary glands- all mammals have em’. • Mammary glands- present in both sexes. • Modified sweat glands and part of the skin. • 15-25 lobes radiate around each nipple. • Lobes are subdivided into lobules which contain alveolar glands. • Alveolar glands produce milk when a woman is lactating. • Lactiferous ducts open to the outside of the nipple. Effects of Pregnancy on Mother • • • • Crowded abdominal organs Ribs flare- thorax widens Changes a women's center of gravity- back ache Relaxin- hormone causes ligaments to relax and ease birth canal= pregnancy waddle • Effects GI system- morning sickness, heart burn, & constipation. • Effects Urinary system- frequent urge to urinate. • Respiratory and Circulatory system. Stages of Labor • Dilation= 10 cm 6-12 hours • Expulsion= 20min- 2 hrs – Head first- breath quickly – Breech- butt first – C-section- if baby is in danger (O2) • Placental= 15min after birth – Postpartum bleeding- all afterbirth not removed. Overview of Childbirth Contraception