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HPR 450
Theories and Therapies
Chapter 2
Its all about the mind…
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RT/TR has a strong focus on psychology
Helping individuals make positive change;
take control of their lives
Broader than PT – not all recreation is active
or physical
Broader than OT – RT/TR emphasizes
enjoyment of the leisure experience, not just
improvement in function
5 Major Theories
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Psychoanalytic
Behavioristic
Cognitive-Behavioral
Growth Psychology
Positive Psychology
TR tends toward eclecticism – a combination
of all of these
Psychoanalytic
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Associated w/
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Freud, Adler, Horney,
Erickson, Sullivan
Instincts, subconscious
ID/EGO/Superego
Some elements are
afforded less credibility
(Oedipus/Electra
complexes) while others
(defense mechanisms) have
proven more useful
Id, Ego and Super-Ego
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id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends;
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the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role;
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The super-ego can stop you from doing certain things that
your id may want you to do (guilt, perfection)
and the ego is the organized, realistic part that
mediates between the desires of the id and the
super-ego.
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Wants, desires, impulses, present from birth
reality principle; i.e. it seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic ways
that will benefit in the long term rather than bring grief.[
Defense Mechanisms
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Unconscious means of protection
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Denial – refusal to acknowledge
Repression – purposeful ‘forgetting’
Displacement – transfer emotions to an easier target
Sublimation – discharge or express socially unacceptable
behaviors in acceptable way (e.g., take up boxing instead
of punching out strangers)
Reaction formation – ‘unacceptable’ impulses are
channeled into the opposite behavior (e.g. person who
drinks/drives becomes president of the local MADD
group)
Rationalization – socially accepted reason prevents nonacceptable belief about ones self
Psychoanalytic approach –
How does it relate to TR?
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Sublimation – channel potentially negative
behaviors into acceptable forms of recreation
(note: catharsis (purging of emotions) is
questionable – some aggressive sports
INCREASE overall tendencies toward
aggression)
Understanding of subconscious and how it
impacts behaviors
Understanding of stages of development in
general; impact that experiences from earlier
years may have on later behaviors
Table 2-3
Common Defenses
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Denial. The source of distress is not acknowledged or
perceived because it is too threatening. The person refuses to
admit being frightened by an event or action of another
individual.
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Repression. Unacceptable or anxiety-provoking thoughts or
feelings are blotted out of consciousness. People forget
threatening occurrences.
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Displacement. Emotions are transferred from the original
person or object to a less formidable, or safer, target. It is the
“kick the cat” defense.
Table 2-3
Common Defenses (Cont.)
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Projection. Rejecting an unacceptable thought or feeling by
blaming it on another person. By attributing it to someone else,
the unacceptable thought or feeling is removed from the person.
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Sublimation. Directing a socially unacceptable desire or
activity into a socially acceptable one. For example, releasing
sexual urges though dance.
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Rationalization. A socially acceptable reason is given to avoid
having to face a nonacceptable belief about oneself.
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Intellectualization. Painful emotions or feelings associated
with an event are explained away by the use of a rational
explanation.
Behavioristic Behavior Therapy or
Behavior Modification
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HPR 411
From ‘learning’ theories
Reinforcement; rewards
and punishment; modeling;
shaping; conditioning
Frequently used with
persons with mental
illness, developmental
disabilities
Subconscious
(psychoanalytic) vs.
academic (learning)
How does it relate to TR?
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Objective observation of overt behavior and
learning of new behaviors to achieve assessed
goals
Use of rewards (“token economies”)
Elements of behaviorism in other facilitation
techniques (assertiveness training; social
skills training; progressive relaxation are
examples)
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches - 1
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Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
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Albert Ellis
Beliefs influence experiences (how we perceive what happens)
We are predisposed to be creative and happy
We acquire irrational beliefs (“I must” or “Must not”
do/think/act/believe)
May destroy our health and happiness
RET identifies irrational beliefs and provides client with ways of
combating them
RT/TR can use RET in leisure counseling – for example,
teaching people not to feel guilty about engaging in leisure
rather than work
“Perception” (ABC – Activate, Believe, Consequence)
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches - 2
Reality Therapy
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William Glasser
Focus on present behavior and taking responsibility for
one’s own needs
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Basic needs are to find love and worth
Failure to meet these needs may result in denial of reality leading
to negative behavior patterns or poor health
RT/TR can use reality therapy by forming supportive
relationship with clients while helping clients to take
responsibility for behavior AND focus on living in
the present
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches - 3
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
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Aaron Beck
Maladaptive assumptions underlie individuals thoughts
and beliefs (sounds a little like RET)
Deal with here and now (sounds a little like Reality
Therapy)
RT/TR can use C-B in leisure counseling to help
clients look at general beliefs and values and
understand how those affect feelings and behaviors
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Covered thus far:
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Psychoanalytic
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Behavioristic
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Defense mechanisms; subconscious; stages of
development
Reward and punishment; token economies; shaping
behaviors
Cognitive behavioral
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Beliefs shape our experiences; unconditional positive
regard; living in the present
Growth Psychology in general
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Humanistic Approach
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Anti-determinism (Freud – biologically
determined; Behaviorism – environmentally
determined)
Free will; freedom of choice; responsibility for
one’s actions
Also called ‘health psychology’ due to concern
with wellness
Mental health not just absence of neurosis; also
healthy self-awareness
Growth Psychology - 1
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Person-Centered Therapy
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Carl Rogers
Unconditional positive regard (lack of same
results in anxiety)
Therapist should be accepting, non-directive and
display unconditional positive regard
Creates safe environment for client recovery
Table 2-4
Six Conditions for Change
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The client and helper must be in psychological contact. A
therapeutic relationship or emotional connection between the
helper and client is essential.
The client must be in a state of incongruence…If a client
feels no anxiety, she or he is unlikely to be motivated
enough to engage in the helping process.
The helper must be congruent (genuine) or integrated in the
relationship…The helper cannot be phony in the helping
relationship.
Source: Hill, C.E., & O’Brien, K.M. (1999). Helping skills: Facilitating, exploration, insight, and action. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp.68, 69.
Six Conditions for Change (Cont.)
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The helper must feel unconditional positive regard for the
client…Essentially, a helper is trying to understand a client’s
feelings and experience but is not trying to judge whether the
person “should” or “should not” have the feelings or whether
the feelings are “right” or “wrong.”
The helper must experience empathy for the client…We can
distinguish empathy from sympathy, in which the helper feels
pity for the client and often acts from a one-up power position
rather than as an equal.
The client must experience the helper’s congruence,
unconditional positive regard, and empathy. If the client does
not experience the facilitative conditions, for all practical
purposes they do not exist for the client and the sessions are not
likely to be helpful.
Growth Psychology - 2
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Gestalt Therapy
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German word implies organized whole or sense of
wholeness
Fritz Perls
People live and behave as others expect them to
rather than being genuine
Inhibit and repress feelings
May project these feelings onto others to avoid
owning up to them
Growth Psychology - 3
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Transactional Analysis
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Eric Berne
Used in group therapy
Looks at the basis for our relationships with
others; how those relationships are expressed;
how we delay dealing with feelings
Roles in relationships may or may not be parallel
(transactional analysis; adults, children)
Growth Psychology – How does it
relate to TR?
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RT/TR can be applicable to all people, not
just ‘disabled’
Humanistic
Focus on growth of individual
Unconditional positive regard by therapist;
warm accepting climate
Dealing with here and now
Positive Psychology
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21st century approach
Martin Seligman
Focus on subjective
experiences – well being,
contentment, satisfaction,
optimism, flow
(Csikszentmihalyi)
Definition -“The
psychology of human
strengths and optimal
functioning”
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Accentuates the positive !!
Positive Psychology - elements
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Positive Emotions
Positive Traits – abilities, strengths and
virtues
Positive Institutions – influences that cultivate
abilities and strengths
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Capacity for love and vocation, courage,
interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility,
perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future
mindedness, spirituality, high talent, wisdom
Positive Psychology – How does it
relate to TR?
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People tend toward
self-actualization
Focus on the positive
Focus on strengths,
rather than weaknesses
Building rather than
repairing
Table 2-1
Five Major Theories of Helping
Theory
Theorists
Psycho- Freud
analytic Adler
Horney
Erickson
Sullivan
Concepts
Instincts motivate
behaviors. A great
deal of
significance is
given to
unconscious
factors.
Approaches
Therapist’s
interpretations
Catharsis
Psychoanalysis
Psychotherapy
Table 2-1
Five Major Theories of Helping (Cont.)
Theory
Theorists
Behavio- Watson
ristic
Pavlov
Thorndike
Skinner
Premack
Concepts
Behavior is learned.
Abnormal behavior
is a type of learned
behavior and so it
can be changed.
Approaches
Reinforcement
Modeling
Token
economies
Premack
Principle
Social Skills
Training
Table 2-1
Five Major Theories of Helping (Cont.)
Theory
Theorists
Cognitive- Ellis
Behavioral Glasser
Beck
Concepts
Approaches
RationalPeople identify
Emotive
thoughts and
Therapy
beliefs they hold
about themselves Reality Therapy
Cognitiveand the world in
Behavioral
order to change
Therapy
the way they think
about themselves
and the world.
Table 2-1
Five Major Theories of Helping (Cont.)
Theory
Theorists
Growth
Rogers
Psychology Perls
Berne
Maslow
Allport
Concepts
Sees people as
being self-aware,
able to deal with
environmental
influences, and
generally in
control of their
own destinies.
Approaches
PersonCentered
Therapy
Gestalt
Therapy
Transactional
analysis
Table 2-1
Five Major Theories of Helping (Cont.)
Theory
Theorists
Concepts
Approaches
Broaden-andPositive Seligman
People
Build Theory
Psych- Csikszentmihalyi reach
Activities foster
optimal
ology
positive
functioning
emotions
through
Development of
positive
strengths
emotions,
and abilities
positive
traits, and
positive
institutions.
Other Theories that RT/TR may draw
from…
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Family Therapy
Psychodrama
Multimodal Therapy
Constructivism
Feminist Therapies
Multicultural
Perspective