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Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion A - Motivation Four perspectives used to understand motivation: • • • • Instinct theory (evolutionary perspective) Drive-reduction theory Arousal theory Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Instinct Theory • Unlearned behaviors that organisms are genetically predisposed to exhibit drive us • Does apply to species-typical behavior • Major drawback: this theory describes motivation but doesn’t explain it Drive-Reduction Theory • Inner drives push and external incentives pull us towards particular behaviors • Physiological needs (such as for food or water) create an arousal state that we then are motivated to correct to reach homeostasis • Environmental stimuli also cause us to seek incentives (operant conditioning) Arousal Theory • Boredom may actually cause us to seek increased arousal (curiosity) • Everyone has an optimum level of arousal • Some individuals are motivated because they have a high need for arousal, others have a lower need for arousal • May be affected by brain areas Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • He argued that the needs build on one another – we are more likely to be preoccupied with satisfying lower level needs before we move to satisfy higher levels • But, the order of the needs is not universal Common human behaviors research seeks to explain with motivational theories: • Hunger – obesity, eating disorders • Sexual motivation • Need for belongingness – need for affiliation Hunger Physiology of Hunger - Stomach signals hunger with contractions (pangs) - Empty stomach secretes ghrelin – but even those with no stomach still feel hungry - Low blood glucose makes us feel hungry because it causes the lateral hypothalamus to produce orexin - Ventromedial hypothalamus, PYY, and leptin depress hunger - Set point may actually be a settling point because BMR can change through calorie deprivation, exercise Psychology of Hunger - Carbs raise serotonin levels, which calms us - Genetics – preference for sweet and salty foods, avoidance of unfamiliar foods, taste aversions easily conditioned - Environmental influence evidenced by social facilitation and unit bias Eating Disorders Types Anorexia nervosa – below normal body weight (may also purge) Bulimia nervosa – binge and purge Binge-eating – binge but no purge Causes - Related to low selfesteem, perfectionism, excessive concern with other perception of them - May have a genetic component - Culture – body image ideal, media - More common among young females, but affects males and older women too Obesity • Major health issue in United States – 2/3 overweight and 1/3 obese • Increased risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, some cancers, Alzheimer’s and brain tissue loss (women) • Shortens life span • Social effects – weight bias (discrimination), especially against women • Psychological effects – associated with lower psychological well-being and 25% increase in depression and anxiety Causes of Obesity • Fat cells – We are born with a certain number of fat cells, how many may be genetic – We will never decrease the number of fat cells but we can increase them with childhood or adulthood overeating patterns • Set point and BMR (metabolism) – Fat requires fewer calories to maintain than lean tissue – If we cut calories, the body will adapt by burning fewer calories, slowing metabolism • Genetics – Many genes implicated – Correlation with natural parents weight not adoptive – Identical twins reared apart have similar weights • Food and Activity levels – – – – Lack of sleep related to obesity More likely to become obese if a friend is obese Food consumption levels changing – unit bias Activity levels falling - technology Losing Weight • Most who lose weight will regain it • Must set realistic and moderate goals • Must modify lifestyle in terms of eating habits and activity levels • Obesity probably not caused by guilt, hostility, oral fixation, lack of willpower, etc. Sexual Motivation • Masters and Johnson identified the sexual response cycle – Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution – Refractory period shorter for women than for men • Sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) play a role in development of primary and secondary sex characteristics and in sexual behavior • Females - fluctuation of estrogen levels has some impact on sexual behavior, but not to the same degree as in animals human female sexual behavior more influenced by testosterone • Males - testosterone levels have little effect on sex drive unless there are large changes Psychology of Sex • Sexual behavior is influenced by both external stimuli and internal (imagined) stimuli • Exposure to sexually explicit media impacts both men and women - may cause devaluation or dissatisfaction with current partner • Sexual fantasies are normal Adolescent Sexuality • Major issue due to conflicting feelings - natural feelings of changes in body due to hormones may conflict with social, family, personal, religious values about sexual behavior • Higher teen pregnancy rates in U.S. compared to Europe - ignorance, little communication about birth control, guilt, alcohol use, mass media norms of promiscuity • STIs (STDs) - 40% of sexually active teens had an STI in 1994 • Predictors of abstinence - high IQ, religious, father in the home, participation in community service Sexual Orientation • Statistics? – 3 to 4% of men are homosexual – 1 to 2% of women are homosexual – Less than 1% are bisexual • Sexual orientation is not an indicator of mental health Origins of homosexuality Nature - fraternal birth-order effect - Same-sex relations in hundreds of species - Brain differences - Gay men and straight women have hemispheres of about same size - Lesbian women and straight men have larger right hemispheres - Genetics seems to play a role - Prenatal hormone exposure between 2nd and 5th month - “exotic is erotic” The Need to Belong (Need for Affiliation) • Why do we become strongly attached in enduring relationships? – From an evolutionary perspective, social bonds have helped humans survive and reproduce – Being in healthy close relationships is correlated with higher levels of happiness, better health, and lower risk for psychological problem and early death • Fear of being alone is a motivating force causing us to seek acceptance • Severe social isolation causes problems in children • Ostracism, social exclusion, causes increased activity in anterior cingulate cortex (this area is also activated by physical pain) – May result in depressed mood, withdrawal – May then seek new friends or turn nasty