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A review of Michael Shermer’s The Science of Good and Evil Why People Cheat, Gossip, Care, Share, and Follow the Golden Rule Jamie Severtson Western Michigan University Evolution of Morality • Morality – Right and wrong thoughts and behaviors in the context of a social group • Scientific analysis – More beneficial than philosophical as an explanation of moral development • Removes God from equation – Not arguing existence, just not relevant to scientific approach – Creates the problem of moral relativity • Methodological naturalism – Morals result from laws of nature • Evolution – Morals evolved through natural selection on individuals and populations » All animals are trying to survive and cooperation is a good strategy Evolution of Morality (cont.) • Morality – Exclusively human • Conscious assessment of right and wrong – Verbal behavior rule statements » Self-aware, self-conscious • Premorality – Moral-like behavior observed in our ancestors • Examples – Vampire bats share food – Dophins push the sick to surface to get air • Species differ to the degree that they demonstrate moral behavior – – – – If humans are .8 to .9 moral, then Apes are .6 to .7 moral Monkeys are .4 to .5 moral Whales and dolphins are .2 to .3 moral Evolution of Morality (cont.) • As humans evolved, culture changed and morality evolved – Increased populations • Changing social structure – Division of labor – Value changes – Organized religion developed Bands = 10s-100s of individuals Tribes = 100s – 1,000s of individuals Chiefdoms = 1,000s – 10,000s of individuals States = 10,000s – 100,000s of inidividuals Empires = 100,000s – 1,000,000s of individuals Bio-Cultural Evolutionary Pryamid A Model of the Origin and Development of Ethical Behavior Immorality • Problem with God – How can God be all knowing, and all good, if evil exists? • God’s will • Myth of pure evil – Force within us • Accountability problem (free will?) – Solution » Talk about evil as an adjective (e.g., evil act) rather than a noun. » No such thing as pure evil Immorality (cont.) • Myth of pure evil (cont.) – Justifies immoral acts • 17th century Europe – Burning “witches” – Spanish Inquisition • 20th century Muslim Middle East – September 11th » Killing Americans will restore peace – Does not lead us to a real explanation for behavior Immorality (cont.) • Although we have evolved into moral creatures, anyone can engage in an evil act given the right circumstances – Holocaust • Not all Germans were Nazis • Not all Nazis were “bad” • Those evil actions were not unique to Nazis – Milgrim experiments – Zimbardo’s Standford prison experiements – Calling someone evil does not get at the cause of behavior Immorality (cont.) • Myth of pure good – Nobel savages – Also detrimental to understanding of morality – Humans are both good and bad Political Organization and Frequency of Warfare Death Rate from Wartime Making Moral Choices In a Determined Universe • Law – Insanity Defense • Free will • Most people will follow the law • Few people will not under mental duress – How can you punish someone for something they did not choose to do? – The Durham Test • Did the defendant have a mental defect? • If so, was the defect the reason for the unlawful act? Making Moral Choices In a Determined Universe • Free Will – Quantum indeterminacy • Random neural firings – Fuzzy Logic • Shades of categories unrecognized by law – Neuroscience • Science shows that mind and body are not separate • Brain is wired and rewired – Genetics and environmental conditions • Choices “feel” free even if they aren’t really free Making Moral Choices In a Determined Universe • Free Will (cont.) – Derived from determinism? • Incompatible terms – Left with ignorance » We can not know all of the causal variables » Therefore our choices are “free” because we are ignorant Godless Goodness • “Is a belief in God necessary to right the wrongs of immoral behavior?” – Many nonbelievers behave morally • Abraham is believed to be an atheist – Many believers behavior immorally • Hitler was Catholic – Without God, would you be more likely to commit: • robbery? • rape? • murder? – Does the presence of God prevent these acts? Godless Goodness (cont.) • How can we be good without god? – Values (behaviors) are passed down through generation to generation • Behaviors that coincide with cultural norms are reinforced • Behaviors that do not are punished • “Secular ethics may be primitive and flawed, yet it is the most precious thing we have.” Absolute vs. Relative vs. Provisional Ethics • Absolute – Inflexible – Typically derived from religious sources – Most popular • Relative – Flexible – Derived from social group – Problems of justifying any action • Consequential – An action Absolute vs. Relative vs. Provisional Ethics (cont.) • Provisional – Allows room to make better moral choices – Middle ground between absolutism and relativism • “It would be reasonable for us to offer our conditional agreement that an action is moral or immoral if the evidence for and the justification of the action is overwhelming.” Skinner on Morals • “…the behavior we call moral or just is a product of special kinds of social contingencies arranged by governments, religions, economic systems, and ethical groups” (Skinner, 1974, p. 268-269) Conclusions • Many of the author’s notions regarding the development of morality are in line with behavior analytic account – Evolution of altruism in different species • Moral behavior is necessary for the survival of the individual and the species – Human verbal behavior makes them unique • Rule governed behavior • The creation of “God” as a governing authority Conclusions (cont.) – Religion adds contingencies to control behavior • May have been necessary at one point in the history of humans, but may not be necessary now – Consequences for behavior may be due to • Natural selection • Classical conditioning • Operant conditioning – Shermer appears to uphold the theoretical assumptions of contextualism Thank you! For more information on a theoretical behavior analytic account of religion and moral development, enjoy the following slides put together by Jamie Severtson and Candice Jostad Religion and Moral Development Avoiding Hellfire and eternal damnation By Jamie M. Severtson & Candice M. Jostad “…the behavior we call moral or just is a product of special kinds of social contingencies arranged by governments, religions, economic systems, and ethical groups” (Skinner, 1974, p. 268-269) Natural Contingencies • Do not Support Moral Behavior (Support immoral behavior) •Greed •Laziness •Lying •Lust •Gluttony •Wrath •Pride Jamie’s Mom on the importance of morality… • “My answer, without looking at the bible, is that morals are important because…you gotta be moral, because if you’re not, it’s bad. Bad things could happen, and you want to be good.” The Need for Moral Control • Mediation of future (Skinner, 1974) • Enjoy the benefits of Group Membership (Baum, 2005) The Need for Moral Control • good behavior without monitoring (Malott & Suarez, 2004) –“The eyes of the Lord are everywhere, keeping watch on the wicked and the good.” Proverbs 14:32 Religion • contingencies to support moral behavior I’m sorry I said –Be altruistic your wig looks That’s okay. fake! –Cooperate with Others –Love thy Neighbor –Be Kind –Obey Parents –Feed the hungry –Care for the sick –Be Honest –Show Mercy –Forgive Others Behavioral Theory Religion Impacts Moral Development through: – Respondent Conditioning •Pairing – Operant conditioning •Direct-Acting Contingencies •Indirect-Acting Contingencies Respondent Conditioning • Conditioned Reinforcers & Aversive Stimuli Good God CS Jesus Love Right US Righteous Bad Satan CS Demons Hate Wrong US Evil Heaven Hell • Elicit physical reactions Stimulus Equivalence Trained Relations Derived Relations “Good” “God” Stimulus Equivalence Trained Relations Derived Relations “Heaven” “God” “Righteous” Operant Conditioning • Contingencies –Direct-Acting •E.g., Prayer, Bible Study, Crafts –Reinforce participation –Punish Inappropriate behavior –Indirect-Acting (Rules) •Heaven & Hell –Ultimate Reinforcer –Ultimate Aversive Condition The Big Ten • How can 10 rules encompass all moral behavior? –If certain stimuli are in an equivalence class with “Good” or “Bad” then you would engage in Relevant approach or avoidant behavior Honor thy Father & Mother • No back-talk • Clean up your toys • Don’t fight with your brother • Take out the trash • Do your homework • Feed the dog • Come home before curfew • Ask before you take the car • Get good grades • Go to college • Get married • Have babies Thou shall not covet your neighbor’s wife – How many different rule statements could you make based on this one commandment? Conclusions •Religion benefits Society by establishing moral behavior for the survival of the culture • Moral development occurs as a result of the social community’s reinforcing practices