Download Fundamentals of Management 6e.

Fundamentals of Management
Sixth Edition
Robbins and DeCenzo
with contributions from Henry Moon
CHAPTER
8
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Part IV: Leading
Foundations of Individual
and Group Behavior
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
The University of West Alabama
Toward Explaining and Predicting Behavior
• Organizational Behavior (OB) Defined:
 The study of the actions of people at work
• The Focus of OB
 Individual behaviors

Personality, perception, learning, and motivation
 Group behaviors

Norms, roles, team-and conflict
• The Goals of OB
 To explain behavior
 To predict behavior
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–2
Behaviors of Interest to OB
• Employee Productivity
 The efficiency and effectiveness of employees
• Absenteeism
 The election by employees to attend work
• Turnover
 The exit of an employee from an organization
• Organizational Citizenship
 Employee behaviors that promote the welfare of the
organization
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–3
Understanding Employees
• Attitudes
 Valuative statements concerning objects, people, or
events
Cognitive component
– The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a
person
 Affective component
– The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude
 Behavioral component
– An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something

© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–4
Job-Related Attitudes
• Job Satisfaction
 An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job.
• Job Involvement
 The degree to which an employee identifies with his
or her job, actively participates in it, and considers
his or her job performance important for self-worth.
• Organizational Commitment
 An employee’s orientation toward the organization in
terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and
involvement in the organization.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–5
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Cognitive Dissonance
 Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or
between behavior and attitudes

Inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will seek a
stable state with a minimum of dissonance.
• Desire to reduce dissonance is determined by:
 The importance of the elements creating the
dissonance.
 The degree of influence the individual believes he or
she has over the elements.
 The rewards that may be involved.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–6
Fostering Positive Job Attitudes
• Managers can reduce dissonance by:
 Creating the perception that the source of the
dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable.
 Increasing employee rewards for engaging in the
behaviors related to the dissonance.
• Satisfied workers are not necessarily more
productive workers.
 Assisting employees in successful performance of
their jobs will increase their desired outcomes and
lead to increased job satisfaction—focusing on
productivity as a means rather than an ends.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–7
Personality and Behavior
• Personality
 Is the combination of the psychological traits that
characterize that person.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®)
 A method of identifying personality types uses four
dimensions of personality to identify 16 different
personality types.
• Big Five Model
 Five-factor model of personality that includes
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–8
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Extroversion versus Introversion (EI)
 An individual’s orientation toward the inner world of ideas (I) or
the external world of the environment (E).
• Sensing versus Intuitive (SN)
 An individual’s reliance on information gathered from the
external world (S) or from the world of ideas (N).
• Thinking versus Feeling (TF)
 One’s preference for evaluating information in an analytical
manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs (F).
• Judging versus Perceiving (JP).
 Reflects an attitude toward the external world that is either task
completion oriented (J) or information seeking (P).
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–9
The Big Five Model of Personality
1. Extroversion
the degree to which someone is sociable,
talkative, and assertive.
2. Agreeableness
the degree to which someone is goodnatured, cooperative, and trusting.
3. Conscientiousness
the degree to which someone is
responsible, dependable, persistent, and
achievement oriented.
4. Emotional stability
the degree to which someone is calm,
enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or
tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure
(negative).
5. Openness to
experience
the degree to which someone is
imaginative, artistically sensitive, and
intellectual.
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8–10
What Is Emotional Intelligence (EI)?
• Emotional Intelligence (EI)
 An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities,
and competencies that influence a person’s ability to
cope with environmental demands and pressures.
• Dimensions of EI
 Self-awareness own feelings
 Self-management of own emotions
 Self-motivation in face of setbacks
 Empathy for others’ feelings
 Social skills to handle others’ emotions
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–11
Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors
• Locus of Control
 A personality attribute that measures the degree to
which people believe that they are masters of their
own fate.
• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)
 A measure of the degree to which people are
pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe
that ends can justify means.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–12
Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors (cont’d)
• Self-Esteem (SE)
 An individual’s degree of life dislike for him- or
herself
• Self-Monitoring
 A measure of an individual’s ability to adjust his or
her behavior to external, situational factors
• Propensity for Risk Taking
 The willingness to take chances—a preference to
assume or avoid risk
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8–13
Key Points of Holland’s Model
• There do appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality among individuals.
• There are different types of jobs.
• People in job environments congruent with their
personality types should be more satisfied and
less likely to resign voluntarily than people in
incongruent jobs.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–14
Personality Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
• Proactive Personality
 High level of motivation
Internal locus of control
 Need for autonomy

 Abundance of self-confidence

Self-esteem
 High energy levels

Persistence
 Moderate risk taker

Problem solver
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8–15
Perception
• Perception
 A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment.
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8–16
Influences on Perception
• Personal
Characteristics
• Target
Characteristics
 Attitudes
 Relationship of a target
 Personality
to its background
 Closeness and/or
similarity to other things
 The context in object is
seen
 Other situational
factors.
 Motives
 Interests
 Past experiences
 Expectations
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8–17
How Do Managers Judge Employees?
• Attribution Theory
 A theory based on the premise that we judge people
differently depending on the meaning we attribute to
a given behavior.

Internally caused behavior is believed to be under the
control of the individual.

Externally caused behavior results from outside causes; that
is, the person is seen as having been forced into the
behavior by the situation.
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8–18
Interpreting Behavior
• Distinctiveness
 Whether an individual displays a behavior in many
situations or whether it is particular to one situation.
• Consensus
 If the individual responds in the same way as
everyone else faced with a similar situation
responds.
• Consistency
 The individual engages in the same behaviors
regularly and consistently over time.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–19
Judgment Errors
• Fundamental Attribution Error
 The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors when making judgments
about the behavior of others.
• Self-Serving Bias
 The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting the blame
for failures on external factors.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–20
Learning
• Learning Defined
 Any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience.
• Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
 Argues that voluntary, or learned, behavior is a
function of its consequences.

Reinforcement increases the likelihood that behavior will be
repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is
less likely to be repeated.

Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the
desired response.
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8–21
Learning (cont’d)
• Social Learning Theory
 The theory that people can learn through observation
and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of
others.
• Modeling Processes
 Attentional processes
 Retention processes
 Motor reproduction processes
 Reinforcement processes
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8–22
Shaping Behavior
• Shaping Behavior
 Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to a desired behavior
• Ways To Shape Behavior:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction
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8–23
Foundations Of Group Behavior
• What is a Group?
 Two or more interacting and interdependent
individuals who come together to achieve particular
objectives
• Basic Concepts of Group Behavior
 Role

A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone in
a given position in a social unit
 Norms

Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance, dress,
and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–24
Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d)
• Status
 A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group
May be informally conferred by characteristics such as
education, age, skill, or experience.
 Anything can have status value if others in the group admire
it.

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8–25
Group Effects
• Size
 Size is a benefit or a hindrance depending on the
criteria considered.
 Social loafing: the tendency of individuals in a group
to decrease their efforts when responsibility and
individual achievement cannot be measured.
• Group Cohesiveness
 The degree to which members of a group are
attracted to each other and share goals

Size, work environment, Length of time in existence, grouporganization, and goal congruency affect group
cohesiveness.
© 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
8–26