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PART IV: Leading 8 Chapter 8 Foundations of Individual and Group Behavior Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook The University of West Alabama Organizational Behavior (OB) Defined • The study of the actions of people at work • The focus of OB Individual behaviors Personality, perception, learning, and motivation Group behaviors Norms, roles, team-and conflict • The goals of OB To explain To predict behavior Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–2 Behaviors of Interest to OB • Employee productivity The efficiency and effectiveness of employees • Absenteeism The election by employees to attend work • Turnover The exit of an employee from an organization • Organizational citizenship Employee behaviors that promote the welfare of the organization Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–3 Understanding Employees • Attitudes Valuative statements concerning objects, people, or events Cognitive component – The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person Affective component – The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude Behavioral component – An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–4 Job-Related Attitudes • Job satisfaction An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job. • Job involvement The degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important for self-worth. • Organizational commitment An employee’s orientation toward the organization in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–5 Cognitive Dissonance Theory • Cognitive dissonance Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes Inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will seek a stable state with a minimum of dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by: – The importance of the elements creating the dissonance – The degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements – The rewards that may be involved. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–6 Fostering Positive Job Attitudes • Managers can reduce dissonance by: Creating the perception that the source of the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. Increasing employee rewards for engaging in the behaviors related to the dissonance. • Satisfied workers are not necessarily more productive workers. Assisting employees in successful performance of their jobs will increase their desired outcomes and lead to increased job satisfaction—focusing on productivity as a means rather than an ends. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–7 Personality and Behavior • Personality is the combination of the psychological traits that characterize that person. • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A method of identifying personality types uses four dimensions of personality to identify 16 different personality types. • Big Five model Five-factor model of personality that includes extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–8 Big Five Model of Personality Factors • Extroversion • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Emotional stability • Openness to experience Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–9 Emotional intelligence (EI) • An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures. Dimensions of EI Self-awareness own feelings Self-management Self-motivation Empathy Social of own emotions in face of setbacks for others’ feelings skills to handle others’ emotions Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–10 Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors • Locus of control A personality attribute that measures the degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate. • Machiavellianism (“Mach”) A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends can justify means. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–11 Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors (cont’d) • Self-esteem (SE) An individual’s degree of life dislike for him- or herself • Self-monitoring A measure of an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors • Propensity for risk taking The willingness to take chances—a preference to assume or avoid risk Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–12 Key Points of Holland’s Model • There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals. • There are different types of jobs. • People in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and less likely to resign voluntarily than people in incongruent jobs. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–13 Personality Characteristics of Entrepreneurs • Proactive personality High level of motivation Internal locus of control Need for autonomy Abundance of self-confidence Self-esteem High energy levels Persistence Moderate risk taker Problem solver Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–14 Perception • Perception A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–15 Influences on Perception • Personal characteristics Attitudes Personality Motives Interests Past experiences Expectations Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. • Target characteristics Relationship of a target to its background Closeness and/or similarity to other things The context in objects is seen Other situational factors. 8–16 How Managers Judge Employees • Attribution theory A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior Internally caused behavior is believed to be under the control of the individual. Externally caused behavior results from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–17 Interpreting Behavior • Distinctiveness Whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. • Consensus If the individual responds in the same way as everyone else faced with a similar situation responds. • Consistency The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly and consistently over time. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–18 Judgment Errors • Fundamental attribution error The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. • Self-serving bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–19 Learning • Learning defined Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. • Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner) A behavioral theory that argues that voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–20 Learning (cont’d) • Social learning theory The theory that people can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others. • Modeling processes Attentional processes. Retention processes Motor reproduction processes Reinforcement processes Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–21 Shaping Behavior • Shaping behavior Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to a desired behavior • Four ways in which to shape behavior: Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–22 Foundations Of Group Behavior • Group Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives • Role A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone in a given position in a social unit • Norms Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance, dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–23 Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d) • Status A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group May be informally conferred by characteristics such as education, age, skill, or experience. Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–24 Group Effects • Social loafing The tendency of an individual in a group to decrease his or her effort because responsibility and individual achievement cannot be measured • Group cohesiveness The degree to which members of a group are attracted to each other and share goals Size, work environment, length of time in existence, group-organization, and goal congruency affect the degree of group cohesiveness. Copyright © 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8–25