Download Chapter 1: Intro & Research Methods

Introduction and Research
Methods
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior
and mental processes
Structuralism
Early school of psychology that
emphasized the most basic
components, or structures, of
conscious experiences
Functionalism
Early school of psychology that
emphasized studying the purpose,
or function, of behavior and
mental experiences
Psychoanalysis
Personality theory and form of
psychotherapy that emphasizes
the role of unconscious factors in
personality and behavior
Behaviorism
School of psychology and
theoretical viewpoint that
emphasizes the study of

observable behaviors, especially
as they pertain to the process of
learning
Humanistic psychology

School of psychology and theoretical
viewpoint that emphasizes each person’s
unique potential for psychological growth
and self-direction
Culture
The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors
shared by a group of people and
communicated from one generation to
another
Cross-cultural psychology
Branch of psychology that studies the effects
of culture on behavior and mental processes
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own culture or ethnic
group is superior to all others, and the
related tendency to use one’s own culture as
a standard by which to judge other cultures
Individualistic cultures
Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals
of the individual over the needs and goals of
the group
Evolutionary psychology
The application of principles of evolution,
including natural selection, to explain the
psychological processes and phenomena
Collectivistic cultures
Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals
of the group over the needs and goals of the
individual
Scientific method
A set of assumptions, attitudes, and
procedures that guide researchers in
creating questions to investigate, in
generating evidence, and in drawing
conclusions
Critical thinking
The active process of trying to minimize the
influence of preconceptions and biases
while rationally evaluating evidence,
determining what conclusions can be drawn
from the evidence, and considering
alternative explanations
Empirical evidence
Evidence that is based upon objective
observation, measurement, and/or
experimentation
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables
Variable
A factor that can vary, or change , in ways that
can be observed, measured, and verified
Operational definition
A precise description of how the variables in a
study will be manipulated or measured
Statistics
A branch of mathematics used by researchers
to summarize data and draw conclusions
based on the data
Statistically significant
A mathematical indication that research
results are not very likely to have occurred
by chance
Meta-analysis
A statistical technique that involves
combining and analyzing the results of
many research studies on a specific topic in
order to identify overall trends
Replicate
To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in
order to increase confidence in the validity
of the original findings
Theory
A tentative explanation that tries to integrate
and account for the relationship and account
for the relationship of various findings and
observations
Descriptive methods
Scientific procedures that involve
systematically observing behavior in order
to describe the relationship amount
behaviors and events
Naturalistic observation
The systematic observation and recording of
behaviors as they occur in their natural
setting
Case study
A highly detailed description of a single
individual or event
Survey
A questionnaire or interview designed to
investigate the opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of a particular group
Sample
A selected segment of the population used to
represent the group that is being studied
Representative sample
A selected segment that very closely parallels
the larger population being studied on
relevant characteristics
Random selection
Process in which subjects are selected
randomly from a larger group such that
every group member has an equal chance of
being included in the study
Correlation study
A research strategy that allows the precise
calculation of how strongly related two
factors are to one another
Correlation coefficient
A numerical indication of the magnitude and
direction of the relationship (the correlation)
between two variables
Positive correlation
A finding that two factors vary systematically
in the opposite direction, increasing or
decreasing together
Negative correlation
A finding that two factors vary systematically
in the opposite directions, one increasing as
the other decreases
Experimental method
A method of investigation used to demonstrate
cause-and-effect relationships by purposely
manipulating a factor thought to produce
change in a second factor
Independent variable
The purposely manipulated factor thought to
produce change in an experiment; also
referred to as the treatment of interest
Dependant variable
The factor that is observed and measured for
change in an experiment; thought to be
influenced by the independent variable
Random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental
conditions in such a way that all participants
have an equal chance of being assigned to
any of the conditions or groups in the study
Experiment group or
experimental condition
In an experiment, the group of participants
who are exposed to all experimental
conditions, including the independent
variable or treatment of interest
Control group or control
condition
In an experiment, the group of participants
whoa re exposed to all experimental
conditions, expect the independent variable
or treatment of interest; the group against
which changes in the experimental group
are compared
Placebo control group
In an experiment, a control group in which the
participants are exposed to a fake
independent variable or placebo, effects of
which are compared to a group receiving
the actual independent variable, or
treatment of interest
Expectancy effects
Changes in a subject’s behavior produced by
the subject’s belief that change should
happen; also called placebo effects
Double-blind study
Experimental technique in which neither the
participants is aware of the group or
condition to which the participants have
been assigned
Demand characteristics
In a research study, subtle cues or signals
expressed by the researcher that
communicate the kind of response or
behavior that is expected from the
participant
Pseudoscience
A fake or false science that makes claims
based on little or no scientific evidence
Paranormal phenomena
Alleged abilities or events that fall outside the
range of normal experience and established
scientific explanations
Rule of falsifiability
In order for a claim to be scientifically tested
and proved true, there must be identifiable
evidence that could prove the claim false
Illusory correlation
The mistaken belief that two factors or events
are related when they are not
Mary Whiton Calkins (18631930)
American psychologist who conducted
research on memory, personality, and
dreams; established one of the first U.S.
psychology research laboratories; first
woman president of the American
Psychological Association
Charles Darwin(1809-1882)
English naturalist and scientist whose theory
of evolution through natural selection was
first published in On the Origin of Species
in 1859
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Austrian physician and founder of
psychoanalysis
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
American psychologist who established the
first psychology research laboratory in the
United States; founded the American
Psychological Association
William James (1842-1910)
American philosopher and psychologist who
founded psychology in the United States
and established the psychological school
called functionalism
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
American humanistic psychologist who
developed a theory of motivation
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Russian physiologist whose pioneering
research on learning contributed to the
development of behaviorism; discovered the
basic learning process that is now called
classical conditioning