Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Introduction and Research Methods Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Structuralism Early school of psychology that emphasized the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences Functionalism Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences Psychoanalysis Personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior Behaviorism School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning Humanistic psychology School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction Culture The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another Cross-cultural psychology Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes Ethnocentrism The belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others, and the related tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures Individualistic cultures Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group Evolutionary psychology The application of principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain the psychological processes and phenomena Collectivistic cultures Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual Scientific method A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions Critical thinking The active process of trying to minimize the influence of preconceptions and biases while rationally evaluating evidence, determining what conclusions can be drawn from the evidence, and considering alternative explanations Empirical evidence Evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation Hypothesis A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables Variable A factor that can vary, or change , in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified Operational definition A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured Statistics A branch of mathematics used by researchers to summarize data and draw conclusions based on the data Statistically significant A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance Meta-analysis A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends Replicate To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings Theory A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship and account for the relationship of various findings and observations Descriptive methods Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship amount behaviors and events Naturalistic observation The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting Case study A highly detailed description of a single individual or event Survey A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group Sample A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied Representative sample A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics Random selection Process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study Correlation study A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to one another Correlation coefficient A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables Positive correlation A finding that two factors vary systematically in the opposite direction, increasing or decreasing together Negative correlation A finding that two factors vary systematically in the opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases Experimental method A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating a factor thought to produce change in a second factor Independent variable The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also referred to as the treatment of interest Dependant variable The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; thought to be influenced by the independent variable Random assignment Assigning participants to experimental conditions in such a way that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study Experiment group or experimental condition In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable or treatment of interest Control group or control condition In an experiment, the group of participants whoa re exposed to all experimental conditions, expect the independent variable or treatment of interest; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared Placebo control group In an experiment, a control group in which the participants are exposed to a fake independent variable or placebo, effects of which are compared to a group receiving the actual independent variable, or treatment of interest Expectancy effects Changes in a subject’s behavior produced by the subject’s belief that change should happen; also called placebo effects Double-blind study Experimental technique in which neither the participants is aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned Demand characteristics In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant Pseudoscience A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence Paranormal phenomena Alleged abilities or events that fall outside the range of normal experience and established scientific explanations Rule of falsifiability In order for a claim to be scientifically tested and proved true, there must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim false Illusory correlation The mistaken belief that two factors or events are related when they are not Mary Whiton Calkins (18631930) American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; established one of the first U.S. psychology research laboratories; first woman president of the American Psychological Association Charles Darwin(1809-1882) English naturalist and scientist whose theory of evolution through natural selection was first published in On the Origin of Species in 1859 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States; founded the American Psychological Association William James (1842-1910) American philosopher and psychologist who founded psychology in the United States and established the psychological school called functionalism Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) American humanistic psychologist who developed a theory of motivation Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Russian physiologist whose pioneering research on learning contributed to the development of behaviorism; discovered the basic learning process that is now called classical conditioning