Download Management - Organizational Behavior, Pierce & Gradner

Management
Organizational
Behavior
An Integrated Perspective
Jon L. Pierce &
Donald G. Gardner
with Randall B. Dunham
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
CHAPTER 5
Individuals in
Organizations:
Perception,
Personality,
and Cultural
Differences
PowerPoint Presentation
by Charlie Cook
5–1
Part 2
Individuals as
Organizational Members
• Perception, Personality, and
Cultural Differences
• Attitudes in Organizations
• Motivation in Organizations
• Behavior in Organizations
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–2
Management Practices and Organizational
Affect Employees
Management
Practices
Employee Perceptions,
Attitudes, Motivation
& Behavior
Organizational
Design
FIGURE II–1
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–3
Learning Objectives
1. Define perception, describe the perceptual process,
and explain how perception affects organizational
behavior.
2. Explain what a self-fulfilling prophecy is and its
importance to managers.
3. Describe the Johari window and how it is used to
improve employee interactions.
4. Describe attribution theory and how it is used to
circumvent perceptual problems in organizations.
5. Define personality and how knowledge of employees’
personalities may be used by managers to promote
organizational effectiveness.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–4
Learning Objectives (cont’d)
6.
7.
8.
Describe the relevance of the following personality
traits to organization behavior: organization-based
self-esteem, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and
the “Big Five.”
Define culture and explain its importance to the
management of organizations.
Describe Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–5
Chapter Concepts
• Perception
 The process by which people organize and obtain
meaning from the sensory stimuli they receive from the
environment.
• Personality
 The collection of psychological characteristics or traits
that determines a person’s preferences and individual
style of behavior.
• Culture
 The way in which a society as a whole perceives the
world and how it should operate.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–6
The Importance of Perception
• Perception
 The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.
 Perception helps define “reality.”
 Objective
reality—what truly exists in the physical
world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
 Perceived reality—what individuals experience
through one or more of the human senses, and the
meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
 Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s
perceived reality does not match objective reality.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–7
The Perceptual Process
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Translation
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Stimuli interpretation
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Stimuli organization
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Organization
Stimuli acceptance
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Selection
Physical sensation
Sensation
FIGURE 5–1
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–8
The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation
 An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
 The process a person uses
to eliminate some of the
stimuli that have been
sensed and to retain others
for further processing.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
3. Organization
 The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli
into a framework for
“storage.”
4. Translation
 The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
5–9
Physical Characteristics of Stimuli
•Contrast
 The difference between one
stimulus and surrounding
stimuli that makes that
stimulus more likely to be
selected for perceptual
processing.
•Novelty
 When the stimulus an
•Intensity
 The forcefulness that
enhances the likelihood that
a stimulus will be selected
for perceptual processing.
•Change
 The variety that causes a
stimulus to be selected for
perceptual processing.
individual senses differs
from stimuli experienced in
the past.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–10
Contrast Effect
WERE
HALF
MUST
PULL
AFTER
FROM
THESE
WHICH
NEED
OTHER
EACH
LIST
FOR
USUAL
NOTE
FIGURE 5–2
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–11
Characteristics of the Perceiver
• Motive
 Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s
current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g.,
hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of
the stimulus.
• Personality
 An individual characteristic that creates an increased
likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the
characteristic will be noticed.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–12
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• Organization
 The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into
a framework for “storage.”
 Stimuli become associated when they:
 Are
similar in physical resemblance.
 Occur in close physical (space) proximity.
 Occur in close time proximity.
 Are used for figure-ground differentiation.
 Are used together to achieve closure—a perception of
the whole or to piece together a message.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–13
Figure-Ground Illustration
• Field-ground differentiation
 The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.
FIGURE 5–3
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–14
Closure
• Closure
 The tendency to organize
perceptual stimuli so that,
together, they form a
complete message.
Source: Reprinted with permission from Introduction to psychology:
Explorations and applications by Dennis Coon. Copyright © 1977
by West Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
FIGURE 5–4
5–15
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• Transition
 The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning.
 Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective
reality) of objective reality :
 Primacy
effect
 Recency effect
 Stereotyping
 Halo effect
 Projection
 Selective perception
 Expectancy effects
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–16
Transition Errors
• Primacy effect
 The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.
• Recency effect
 The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.
• Stereotyping
 The generalization (application) of a person’s prior
beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during
encounters with members of that class of objects.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–17
Transition Errors (cont’d)
• Halo effect
 The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation
of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.
• Projection
 The process by which people attribute their own
feelings and characteristics
to other people.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–18
Transition Errors (cont’d)
• Selective perception
 The selection of things consistent with one’s own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are
inconsistent with that viewpoint;
 A perceptual
defense is the retention of existing beliefs
that conflict with new information.
• Expectancy effect
 The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that
confirm expectations.
 Self-fulfilling
prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs
when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to
reflect their expectations in a situation.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–19
Self Perceptions: The Johari Window
Relationship from A’s position
Known to B
Unknown to B
Relationship from B’s position
Known to A
Unknown to A
B’s unshared data
Openly shared data
A’s unshared data
B’s blind spots
A’s blind spots
Unknowns in the
relationship
Future potential
Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented
in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
One way to
conceptualize
the possible
combinations
of what you
know about
yourself and
what others
know about
you.
FIGURE 5–5
5–20
Characteristics Affecting the Perception of
Others
Person Perceived
Organization
Perceiver
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
Group membership
Status
Organizational culture
Competitive conditions
Attribution errors
5–21
Perceiving Others
• Characteristics of the person perceived
 Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe
personality traits to people because they share certain
characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with
others.
• Characteristics of the organization
 An individual’s association with an organization affects
the perception of that individual.
 Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how
other individuals are perceived within the organization.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–22
Perceiving Others (cont’d)
• Characteristics of the perceiver
 Attribution theory—explains how people assign
responsibility and the cognitive processes by which
they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the
behavior of others.
 Locus
of causality—the attribution of the observed
behavior of others to internal or external causes.
 Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the
effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects
of external causes when we judge other people’s
actions.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–23
Reducing Perceptual Errors
• Self-understanding
 The acknowledgement that you and people who interact
with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
• Conscious information processing
 Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning
the accuracy of what you perceive.
• Reality testing
 The comparison of developed
perceptions about a stimulus object
to another (objective) measure of the object.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–24
Personality
• Personality (individual differences)
 The characteristics or traits that describe how people
are likely to behave in a given situation.
 Determines how a person will react to a managerial
practice.
• Pitfalls in assessing personality
 Making hasty judgments about personalities.
 Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm
judgments.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–25
Determinants of Personality
• Nature (heredity)
 The assumption that part of personality is biologically-
based and predetermined.
• Nurture (environment)
 The assumption that
personality is shaped
primarily by life
experiences,
especially those
of early childhood.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–26
Dimensions of Personality
• Self-esteem (self-concept)
 How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.
Low
Incapable
Incompetent
Insignificant
Unworthy
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
Self Esteem
High
Capable
Competent
Significant
Worthy
5–27
Self-Esteem Dimensions
• Global self-esteem
• Role-specific
self-esteem
• Job-based
self-esteem
• Organization-based
self-esteem (OBSE)
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–28
Other Dimensions of Personality
• Locus of control
 The degree to which people believe their actions
determine what happens to them in life.
 Internal
locus of control—occurs when people believe
that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the
determinants of their destiny.
 External locus of control—
occurs when people believe that
external factors such as luck,
other people, or organizations
are the determinants of
their destiny.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–29
Measuring Locus of Control
I more strongly believe that
Internal Control
External Control
Promotions are earned through
hard work and persistence.
Making a lot of money is largely a
matter of getting the right breaks.
In my experience I have noticed
that there is usually a direct
connection between how hard I
study and the grades I get.
Many times the reactions of
teachers seem haphazard to me.
The number of divorces indicates
that more and more people are not
trying to make their marriages
work.
Marriage is a legal gamble.
When I am right I can convince
others.
It is silly to think that one can really
change another person’s basic
attitudes.
Source: Derived from Rotter’s I-E test. J. B. Rotter. 1971. External
control and internal control. Psychology Today 5(1):37–42, 58–59.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
TABLE 5–1
5–30
Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)
• Machiavellianism
 Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who
advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional
behavioral approach by individuals to organizational
participation in meeting their personal objectives.
 The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner
that will meet one’s own needs.
 The
primary focus is on obtaining and using power as
a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its
impact on others.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–31
Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)
• The “Big Five” personality theory
 The view that all personality traits can be distilled into
five big ones:
 Extroversion—outgoing/withdrawn
 Adjustment—flexible/rigid
 Agreeableness—cooperative/uncooperative
 Conscientiousness—thorough/sloppy
 Inquisitiveness—curious/disinterested
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–32
Cultural Differences Among
Organizational Members
• Culture defined
 How a society perceives the world
and how it should operate based
on the beliefs, values, attitudes,
and expectations for behavior that
the society believes to be good,
effective, desirable, and beneficial.
Culture
Knowledge
Beliefs
Laws
Morals
Art
Assumptions
Customs
Habits
Institutions
Parenting
Education
Religious activities
Law enforcement
Entertainment
Future
Generations
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–33
Cultural Awareness and Managers
• Culture affects:
 The success of expatriate employees
in overseas assignments.
 The effectiveness of management
practices and leadership styles
in different cultures.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–34
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
• Individualism-collectivism
 The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to
act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
• Power distance
 The acceptance of large differences
in power between the most and least
powerful in society.
• Uncertainty avoidance
 The degree to which cultures differ
in the extent to which they tolerate
uncertainty.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–35
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) cont’d
• Masculinity-femininity
 The degree to which a society displays mostly
traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
• Time orientation
 The degree to which cultures
possess a short or long
perspective on time.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
5–36
Cultural Differences for Ten Countries
High
Power
Individualism Distance
High
Long-term
Uncertainty
Time
Avoidance Masculinity Orientation
High
USA
Netherlands
Germany
France
Russia
China
France
Hong Kong
Indonesia
West Africa
Japan
France
Russia
Japan
USA
Germany
Hong Kong
China
Japan
Hong Kong
Medium
Russia
Japan
Japan
West Africa
China
Germany
Netherlands
China
West Africa
Indonesia
France
Netherlands
Germany
Low
China
West Africa
Indonesia
Hong Kong
Netherlands
Germany
USA
Indonesia
USA
Hong Kong
Russia
Netherlands
West Africa
Indonesia
France
USA
Russia
Collectivism
Low
Power
Distance
Low
Femininity
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Source: G. Hofstede. 1993. Cultural constraints in management
theories. Academy of Management Executive 7(1):81–94.
Copyright © 2002 by South-Western
Short-term
Time
Orientation
TABLE 5–3
5–37