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Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Chapter 16: Social Behavior Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 What is Social Psychology? Some Definitions • Social Psychology: Scientific study of how • individuals behave, think, and feel in social situations; how people act in the presence (actual or implied) of others Culture: Ongoing pattern of life that is passed from one generation to another Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Affiliation • Need to Affiliate: Desire to associate with • other people; appears to be a basic human trait Social Comparison: Making judgments about ourselves by comparing us to others; e.g., comparing our feelings and abilities to those of other people Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Interpersonal Attraction • Social attraction to another person • Physical Proximity: Physical nearness to • • another person in terms of housing, school, work, and so on Physical Attractiveness: Person’s degree of physical beauty as defined by his or her culture Halo Effect: Tendency to generalize a favorable impression to unrelated personal characteristics Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Similarity • Similarity: Extent to which two people are • • alike in terms of age, education, attitudes, and so on Similar people are attracted to each other Homogamy: Tendency to marry someone who is like us in almost every way Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.2 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Self-Disclosure • Process of revealing private thoughts, attitudes, feelings, and one’s personal history to others – Should be used cautiously and sparingly when you are the therapist performing therapy – May lead to countertransference in therapy (When the therapist makes an unhealthy connection to the client) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More on Self-Disclosure • Reciprocity: Return in kind; reciprocal • exchange Overdisclosure: Self-disclosure that exceeds what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Love and Attachment • Romantic Love: Marked by high levels of • • • interpersonal attraction, sexual desire, and heightened arousal Liking: Relationship based on intimacy and affection but lacking passion or deep commitment Mutual Absorption: When two lovers almost always attend only to each other Evolutionary Psychology: Study of the evolutionary origins of human behavior patterns Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Social Roles • Patterns of behavior expected of people in • various social positions (e.g., daughter, mother, teacher, President) – Ascribed Role: Assigned to a person or not under personal control – Achieved Role: Attained voluntarily or by special effort: teacher, mayor, President Role Conflict: When two or more roles make conflicting demands on behavior and on people Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Groups • Group Structure: Network of roles, • communication, pathways, and power in a group Group Cohesiveness: Degree of attraction among group members or their commitment to remaining in the group – Cohesive groups work better together – What kind of groups did you see on “Survivor,” “Road Rules,” and “Real World”? Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Group Concepts • In-Group: A group with which one identifies • Out-Group: A group with which one does not • • identify Status: Level of social power and importance Norm: Widely accepted but usually unspoken standard of conduct for appropriate behavior Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.3 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Attribution • Process of making inferences about the causes of one’s own behavior, and that of others Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Social Perception • Attribution Theory: Making inferences about the causes of one’s own behavior and others’ behavior; can attribute behavior to: – External Causes: Ones that lie outside of a person – Internal Causes: Ones that lie within a person Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Facial Analysis Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More on Social Perception • Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to • attribute behavior of others to internal causes (personality, likes, and so on); we believe this even if they really have external causes! Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to attribute behavior of others to internal causes, while attributing the behavior of ourselves to external causes (situations and circumstances) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Social Influence • Changes in a person’s behavior induced by the presence or actions of another person – Someone else influences your decision: husband, wife, mother, peer, etc. – Peer pressure: Rudy is swayed by Fanny to go see “Star Wars III: Revenge of the Sith” when he really wanted to see “War of the Worlds.” Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Conformity • Bringing one’s behavior into agreement with norms or the behavior of others in a group Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Solomon Asch’s Experiment on Conformity • You must select (from a group of three) the • • line that most closely matches the standard line; all lines are shown to a group of seven people (including you) Other six were accomplices and at times all would select the wrong line In 33% of the trials, the real subject conformed to group pressure even when the group’s answers were obviously incorrect! Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.4 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Group Factors in Conformity • Groupthink: Compulsion by decision makers • • to maintain each other’s approval, even at the cost of critical thinking Group Sanctions: Rewards and punishments administered by groups to enforce conformity Unanimity: Unanimous agreement Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Obedience (Milgram) • Conformity to the demands of an authority • Would you shock a man with a known heart • condition who is screaming and asking to be released? Milgram studied this; the man with a heart condition was an accomplice and the “teacher” was a real volunteer; the goal was to teach the learner word pairs Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Milgram’s Shocking Results • 65% obeyed by going all the way to 450 volts • on the “shock machine” even though the learner eventually could not answer any more questions – The learner screamed and provided no further answers once 300 volts (“Severe Shock”) was reached Group support can reduce destructive obedience Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More on Obedience • Distance between the teacher and the learner • was important Distance from the authority also had an effect Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.6 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.7 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Compliance • Bending to the requests of one person who has little or no authority or other form of social power Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Foot-in-the-Door Effect • A person who has agreed to a small request is more likely later to agree to a larger demand – Once you get a foot in the door, then a sale is almost a sure thing Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Door-in-the-Face Technique • A person who has refused a major request will be more likely later on to comply with a smaller request – After the door has been slammed in your face (major request refused), person may be more likely to agree to a smaller request Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Low-Ball Technique • Commitment is gained first to reasonable or • desirable terms, which are then made less reasonable or desirable – Henry accepts the price he states for a new car; then later Tillie the saleswoman tells Henry, “The business would lose too much money on that price; can’t you take a bit less and add all these options?” Passive Compliance: Overtly bending to unreasonable demands or circumstances Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Assertiveness Training • Instruction in how to be self-assertive • Self-Assertion: Standing up for your rights by speaking out on your behalf; direct, honest expression of feelings and desires Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Aggression • Hurting another person or achieving one’s goals at the expense of another person – Attempt to get one’s way no matter what – No regard for others’ feelings Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Broken Record • Self-assertion technique that involves repeating a request until it is acknowledged – Good way to be assertive without being aggressive Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Table 16.2 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Attitudes and Beliefs • Attitude: Mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects, or institutions in a positive or negative way – Summarize your evaluation of objects Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Attitude Components • Belief Component: What a person believes • • about an object or issue Emotional Component: Feelings toward the attitudinal object Action Component: One’s actions toward various people, objects, or institutions Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.8 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.9 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Attitude Formation • Direct Contact: Effects of direct experience • • with the object of the attitude Interaction with Others: Influence of discussions with people holding a particular attitude Child Rearing: Effects of parental values, beliefs, and practices Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More on Attitude Formation • Group Membership: Social influences from • • belonging to certain groups Mass Media: All media that reach large audiences (magazines, television) Mean Worldview: Viewing the world and other people as dangerous and threatening Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Attitude Measurement and Change • Reference Group: Any group a person identifies • with and uses as a standard for social comparison Persuasion: Deliberate attempt to change attitudes or beliefs with information and arguments – Communicator: Person presenting arguments or information – Message: Content of communicator’s arguments – Audience: Person or group to whom a persuasive message is directed Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Implicit Association Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger) • Contradicting or clashing thoughts, beliefs, • attitudes, or perceptions that cause discomfort – We need to have consistency in our thoughts, perceptions, and images of ourselves – Underlies attempts to convince ourselves we did the right thing Justification: Degree to which one’s actions are explained by rewards or other circumstances Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Brainwashing • Brainwashing: Engineered or forced attitude • change requiring a captive audience Generally three steps to brainwash someone: – Unfreezing: Loosening of former values and convictions – Change: When the brainwashed person abandons former beliefs – Refreezing: Rewarding and solidifying new attitudes and beliefs Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Cults • Authoritarian group in which the leader’s • personality is more important than the beliefs s/he preaches Group professes great devotion to a person or people and follows that person/people almost without question Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More About Cults • Cult members usually victimized by the • leader(s) Will try to recruit potential converts at a time of need, especially when a sense of belonging is most attractive to potential converts Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Some Final Words About Cults • Look for college students and young adults • Some examples of cults: People’s Temple • and Jim Jones, Heaven’s Gate, Branch Davidians, Osama bin laden and Al Qaeda Where does “Scientology” fit? Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Prejudice • Negative emotional attitude held toward • • members of a specific social group Discrimination: Unequal treatment of people who should have the same rights as others Scapegoating: Blaming a person or group for the actions of others or for conditions not of their making Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More on Prejudice • Personal Prejudice: When members of • another racial or ethnic group are perceived as a threat to one’s own interests Group Prejudice: Occurs when a person conforms to group norms Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Prejudiced Personality and Intergroup Conflict • Authoritarian Personality: Marked by rigidity, • • inhibition, prejudice, and oversimplification (“black and white” thinking) Ethnocentrism: Placing one’s group at the center, usually by rejecting all other groups Social Stereotypes: Oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular social group Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Other Concepts Relating to Prejudice • Symbolic Prejudice: Prejudice that’s • • • expressed in disguised fashion Equal-status Contact: Social interaction that occurs on equal level, without obvious differences in power or status Superordinate Goal: Goal that exceeds or overrides all other goals, making other goals less important Mutual Interdependence: When two or more people must depend on each other to meet each person’s goals or needs Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Some More Concepts Relating to Prejudice • Jigsaw Classroom: Each student only gets a • piece of information needed to complete a problem or prepare for a test; in order to succeed and get all pieces, students must all work together Summary: Prejudicial stereotypes tend to be very irrational Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Aggression • Any action carried out with the intention of harming another person Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Ethologist • Studies natural behavior patterns of animals • Ethologists believe that aggression is innate • in all animals, including humans Appears to be a relationship between aggression and hypoglycemia, allergy, and certain brain injuries and disorders – Certain brain areas can trigger or end aggressive behavior Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • Frustration tends to lead to aggression • Aggression Cues: Signals that are associated with aggression Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.11 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.12 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 • • Social Learning Theory (Bandura) and Television Social Learning Theory: Combines learning principles with cognitive processes, socialization and modeling to explain behavior – No instinctive (innate) desires for shooting guns, knife fights, and so on – Aggression must be learned Weapons Effect: Observation that weapons serve as strong cues for aggressive behavior Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Social Learning Theory (cont.) • Disinhibition: Removal of inhibition; results in • acting-out behavior that normally would be restrained Television seems to be able to cause desensitization to violence – Desensitization: Reduced emotional sensitivity Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Prosocial Behavior and Bystander Apathy • Prosocial Behavior: Behavior toward others • that is helpful, constructive, or altruistic Bystander Apathy: Unwillingness of bystanders to offer help during emergencies – Related to number of people present – More potential helpers present, lower the chances that help will be given Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Decision Points Reached Before Giving Help • Noticing the person in trouble • Defining an Emergency: Until someone • • declares the situation an emergency, no one acts Taking Responsibility: Assume responsibility to help Diffusion of Responsibility: Spreading responsibility to act among several people Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Figure 16.14 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Empathy Concepts • Empathic Arousal: Emotional arousal that • occurs when you feel some of the person’s pain, fear, or anguish Empathy-Helping Relationship: We are most likely to help person in need when we feel emotions such as empathy and compassion Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Multiculturalism • Gives equal status to different ethnic, racial • and cultural groups To break stereotypes: – Seek individuating information • Information that helps us see a person as an individual and not as a member of a group – Don’t believe just-world beliefs • Belief that people generally get what they deserve Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 More Ways to Break Stereotypes • Note self-fulfilling prophecies • – Expectation that prompts people to act in ways that make expectation come true Different does not mean inferior – Social Competition: Rivalry among groups, each of which regard itself as superior to others Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 16 Some More Ways to Break Stereotypes • Race is a Social Construction: Race is an • • illusion based on superficial physical differences and learned ethnic identities Look for commonalities Set an example for others