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Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Chapter 16: Social Behavior
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
What is Social Psychology? Some Definitions
• Social Psychology: Scientific study of how
•
individuals behave, think, and feel in social
situations; how people act in the presence
(actual or implied) of others
Culture: Ongoing pattern of life that is passed
from one generation to another
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Affiliation
• Need to Affiliate: Desire to associate with
•
other people; appears to be a basic human
trait
Social Comparison: Making judgments about
ourselves by comparing us to others; e.g.,
comparing our feelings and abilities to those
of other people
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Interpersonal Attraction
• Social attraction to another person
• Physical Proximity: Physical nearness to
•
•
another person in terms of housing, school,
work, and so on
Physical Attractiveness: Person’s degree of
physical beauty as defined by his or her
culture
Halo Effect: Tendency to generalize a
favorable impression to unrelated personal
characteristics
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Similarity
• Similarity: Extent to which two people are
•
•
alike in terms of age, education, attitudes,
and so on
Similar people are attracted to each other
Homogamy: Tendency to marry someone
who is like us in almost every way
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.2
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Self-Disclosure
• Process of revealing private thoughts,
attitudes, feelings, and one’s personal history
to others
– Should be used cautiously and sparingly
when you are the therapist performing
therapy
– May lead to countertransference in therapy
(When the therapist makes an unhealthy
connection to the client)
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More on Self-Disclosure
• Reciprocity: Return in kind; reciprocal
•
exchange
Overdisclosure: Self-disclosure that exceeds
what is appropriate for a relationship or social
situation
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Love and Attachment
• Romantic Love: Marked by high levels of
•
•
•
interpersonal attraction, sexual desire, and
heightened arousal
Liking: Relationship based on intimacy and
affection but lacking passion or deep
commitment
Mutual Absorption: When two lovers almost
always attend only to each other
Evolutionary Psychology: Study of the
evolutionary origins of human behavior
patterns
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Social Roles
• Patterns of behavior expected of people in
•
various social positions (e.g., daughter,
mother, teacher, President)
– Ascribed Role: Assigned to a person or not
under personal control
– Achieved Role: Attained voluntarily or by
special effort: teacher, mayor, President
Role Conflict: When two or more roles make
conflicting demands on behavior and on
people
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Groups
• Group Structure: Network of roles,
•
communication, pathways, and power in a
group
Group Cohesiveness: Degree of attraction
among group members or their commitment
to remaining in the group
– Cohesive groups work better together
– What kind of groups did you see on
“Survivor,” “Road Rules,” and “Real
World”?
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Group Concepts
• In-Group: A group with which one identifies
• Out-Group: A group with which one does not
•
•
identify
Status: Level of social power and importance
Norm: Widely accepted but usually unspoken
standard of conduct for appropriate behavior
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.3
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Attribution
• Process of making inferences about the
causes of one’s own behavior, and that of
others
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Social Perception
• Attribution Theory: Making inferences about
the causes of one’s own behavior and others’
behavior; can attribute behavior to:
– External Causes: Ones that lie outside of a
person
– Internal Causes: Ones that lie within a
person
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Facial Analysis
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More on Social Perception
• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to
•
attribute behavior of others to internal causes
(personality, likes, and so on); we believe this
even if they really have external causes!
Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to attribute
behavior of others to internal causes, while
attributing the behavior of ourselves to
external causes (situations and
circumstances)
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Social Influence
• Changes in a person’s behavior induced by
the presence or actions of another person
– Someone else influences your decision:
husband, wife, mother, peer, etc.
– Peer pressure: Rudy is swayed by Fanny
to go see “Star Wars III: Revenge of the
Sith” when he really wanted to see “War of
the Worlds.”
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Conformity
• Bringing one’s behavior into agreement with
norms or the behavior of others in a group
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Solomon Asch’s Experiment on Conformity
• You must select (from a group of three) the
•
•
line that most closely matches the standard
line; all lines are shown to a group of seven
people (including you)
Other six were accomplices and at times all
would select the wrong line
In 33% of the trials, the real subject
conformed to group pressure even when the
group’s answers were obviously incorrect!
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.4
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Group Factors in Conformity
• Groupthink: Compulsion by decision makers
•
•
to maintain each other’s approval, even at the
cost of critical thinking
Group Sanctions: Rewards and punishments
administered by groups to enforce conformity
Unanimity: Unanimous agreement
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Obedience (Milgram)
• Conformity to the demands of an authority
• Would you shock a man with a known heart
•
condition who is screaming and asking to be
released?
Milgram studied this; the man with a heart
condition was an accomplice and the
“teacher” was a real volunteer; the goal was
to teach the learner word pairs
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Milgram’s Shocking Results
• 65% obeyed by going all the way to 450 volts
•
on the “shock machine” even though the
learner eventually could not answer any more
questions
– The learner screamed and provided no
further answers once 300 volts (“Severe
Shock”) was reached
Group support can reduce destructive
obedience
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More on Obedience
• Distance between the teacher and the learner
•
was important
Distance from the authority also had an effect
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.6
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.7
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Compliance
• Bending to the requests of one person who
has little or no authority or other form of social
power
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Foot-in-the-Door Effect
• A person who has agreed to a small request
is more likely later to agree to a larger
demand
– Once you get a foot in the door, then a sale
is almost a sure thing
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Door-in-the-Face Technique
• A person who has refused a major request
will be more likely later on to comply with a
smaller request
– After the door has been slammed in your
face (major request refused), person may
be more likely to agree to a smaller request
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Low-Ball Technique
• Commitment is gained first to reasonable or
•
desirable terms, which are then made less
reasonable or desirable
– Henry accepts the price he states for a
new car; then later Tillie the saleswoman
tells Henry, “The business would lose too
much money on that price; can’t you take a
bit less and add all these options?”
Passive Compliance: Overtly bending to
unreasonable demands or circumstances
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Assertiveness Training
• Instruction in how to be self-assertive
• Self-Assertion: Standing up for your rights by
speaking out on your behalf; direct, honest
expression of feelings and desires
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Aggression
• Hurting another person or achieving one’s
goals at the expense of another person
– Attempt to get one’s way no matter what
– No regard for others’ feelings
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Broken Record
• Self-assertion technique that involves
repeating a request until it is acknowledged
– Good way to be assertive without being
aggressive
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Table 16.2
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Attitudes and Beliefs
• Attitude: Mixture of belief and emotion that
predisposes a person to respond to other
people, objects, or institutions in a positive or
negative way
– Summarize your evaluation of objects
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Attitude Components
• Belief Component: What a person believes
•
•
about an object or issue
Emotional Component: Feelings toward the
attitudinal object
Action Component: One’s actions toward
various people, objects, or institutions
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.8
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.9
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Attitude Formation
• Direct Contact: Effects of direct experience
•
•
with the object of the attitude
Interaction with Others: Influence of
discussions with people holding a particular
attitude
Child Rearing: Effects of parental values,
beliefs, and practices
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More on Attitude Formation
• Group Membership: Social influences from
•
•
belonging to certain groups
Mass Media: All media that reach large
audiences (magazines, television)
Mean Worldview: Viewing the world and other
people as dangerous and threatening
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Attitude Measurement and Change
• Reference Group: Any group a person identifies
•
with and uses as a standard for social
comparison
Persuasion: Deliberate attempt to change
attitudes or beliefs with information and
arguments
– Communicator: Person presenting arguments
or information
– Message: Content of communicator’s
arguments
– Audience: Person or group to whom a
persuasive message is directed
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Implicit Association
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
• Contradicting or clashing thoughts, beliefs,
•
attitudes, or perceptions that cause discomfort
– We need to have consistency in our thoughts,
perceptions, and images of ourselves
– Underlies attempts to convince ourselves we
did the right thing
Justification: Degree to which one’s actions are
explained by rewards or other circumstances
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Brainwashing
• Brainwashing: Engineered or forced attitude
•
change requiring a captive audience
Generally three steps to brainwash someone:
– Unfreezing: Loosening of former values
and convictions
– Change: When the brainwashed person
abandons former beliefs
– Refreezing: Rewarding and solidifying new
attitudes and beliefs
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Cults
• Authoritarian group in which the leader’s
•
personality is more important than the beliefs
s/he preaches
Group professes great devotion to a person
or people and follows that person/people
almost without question
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More About Cults
• Cult members usually victimized by the
•
leader(s)
Will try to recruit potential converts at a time
of need, especially when a sense of
belonging is most attractive to potential
converts
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Some Final Words About Cults
• Look for college students and young adults
• Some examples of cults: People’s Temple
•
and Jim Jones, Heaven’s Gate, Branch
Davidians, Osama bin laden and Al Qaeda
Where does “Scientology” fit?
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Prejudice
• Negative emotional attitude held toward
•
•
members of a specific social group
Discrimination: Unequal treatment of people
who should have the same rights as others
Scapegoating: Blaming a person or group for
the actions of others or for conditions not of
their making
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More on Prejudice
• Personal Prejudice: When members of
•
another racial or ethnic group are perceived
as a threat to one’s own interests
Group Prejudice: Occurs when a person
conforms to group norms
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Prejudiced Personality and Intergroup Conflict
• Authoritarian Personality: Marked by rigidity,
•
•
inhibition, prejudice, and oversimplification
(“black and white” thinking)
Ethnocentrism: Placing one’s group at the
center, usually by rejecting all other groups
Social Stereotypes: Oversimplified images of
people who belong to a particular social group
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Other Concepts Relating to Prejudice
• Symbolic Prejudice: Prejudice that’s
•
•
•
expressed in disguised fashion
Equal-status Contact: Social interaction that
occurs on equal level, without obvious
differences in power or status
Superordinate Goal: Goal that exceeds or
overrides all other goals, making other goals
less important
Mutual Interdependence: When two or more
people must depend on each other to meet
each person’s goals or needs
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Some More Concepts Relating to Prejudice
• Jigsaw Classroom: Each student only gets a
•
piece of information needed to complete a
problem or prepare for a test; in order to
succeed and get all pieces, students must all
work together
Summary: Prejudicial stereotypes tend to be
very irrational
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Aggression
• Any action carried out with the intention of
harming another person
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Ethologist
• Studies natural behavior patterns of animals
• Ethologists believe that aggression is innate
•
in all animals, including humans
Appears to be a relationship between
aggression and hypoglycemia, allergy, and
certain brain injuries and disorders
– Certain brain areas can trigger or end
aggressive behavior
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
• Frustration tends to lead to aggression
• Aggression Cues: Signals that are associated
with aggression
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.11
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.12
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
•
•
Social Learning Theory (Bandura) and
Television
Social Learning Theory: Combines learning
principles with cognitive processes,
socialization and modeling to explain
behavior
– No instinctive (innate) desires for shooting
guns, knife fights, and so on
– Aggression must be learned
Weapons Effect: Observation that weapons
serve as strong cues for aggressive behavior
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Social Learning Theory (cont.)
• Disinhibition: Removal of inhibition; results in
•
acting-out behavior that normally would be
restrained
Television seems to be able to cause
desensitization to violence
– Desensitization: Reduced emotional
sensitivity
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Prosocial Behavior and Bystander Apathy
• Prosocial Behavior: Behavior toward others
•
that is helpful, constructive, or altruistic
Bystander Apathy: Unwillingness of
bystanders to offer help during emergencies
– Related to number of people present
– More potential helpers present, lower the
chances that help will be given
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Decision Points Reached Before Giving Help
• Noticing the person in trouble
• Defining an Emergency: Until someone
•
•
declares the situation an emergency, no one
acts
Taking Responsibility: Assume responsibility
to help
Diffusion of Responsibility: Spreading
responsibility to act among several people
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Figure 16.14
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Empathy Concepts
• Empathic Arousal: Emotional arousal that
•
occurs when you feel some of the person’s
pain, fear, or anguish
Empathy-Helping Relationship: We are most
likely to help person in need when we feel
emotions such as empathy and compassion
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Multiculturalism
• Gives equal status to different ethnic, racial
•
and cultural groups
To break stereotypes:
– Seek individuating information
• Information that helps us see a person
as an individual and not as a member of
a group
– Don’t believe just-world beliefs
• Belief that people generally get what
they deserve
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
More Ways to Break Stereotypes
• Note self-fulfilling prophecies
•
– Expectation that prompts people to act in
ways that make expectation come true
Different does not mean inferior
– Social Competition: Rivalry among groups,
each of which regard itself as superior to
others
Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon
Chapter 16
Some More Ways to Break Stereotypes
• Race is a Social Construction: Race is an
•
•
illusion based on superficial physical
differences and learned ethnic identities
Look for commonalities
Set an example for others