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Introduction to Shipping Lecture 10 Environmental Sustainability of Shipping Shipping’s Main Environmental Footprints Ballast water Oil spills Marine wastes (operational discharges) – Garbage (including cargo residues) – Sewage (black & grey water) – Oily residues from engine room (bilge water & sludge) Air emissions – SOx, NOx, PMs – CO2 Main Environmental Footprint Regulatory Regime International Regime: MARPOL 73/78 (umbrella convention): – Six Annexes addressing different sources of operational pollution; can be ratified individually - Annex I - Oil - Annex II – Liquid Noxious Substances - Annex III – Packaged Cargo - Annex IV – Sewage - Annex V – Garbage - Annex VI – Air pollution Subject-specific conventions: – on ballast water, oil spill preparedness and response, etc. Regulatory Regime Source: Uson Marine’s website Regulatory Regime Canadian Regime: Vessel Pollution & Dangerous Chemical Regulations – Adopted under the Canada Shipping Act Address discharges from ships (Part 2): Oil (Division 1) Noxious liquid substances & dangerous chemicals (Division 2) Marine pollutants (Division 3) Sewage (Division 4) Garbage (Division 5) (including cargo residues) Air (Division 6) Greywater (Division 9) Management of Ballast Water Ballast Water 1. What is the issue?: BW is water carried by ships to ensure stability, trim and structural integrity – Essential for un-laden ships, loading/unloading operations Shipping transfers between 3 to 5 billion tonnes of BW internationally each year (IMO data) – Excluding BW volume transferred domestically Ballast Water Source: Globallast Partnerships (IMO) Ballast Water Discharge of BW & sediments can lead to transfer of organisms from one marine ecosystem into another – Organisms small enough to pass through the ship’s BW pumps Bacteria , other microbes, small invertebrates and eggs, cysts, larvae, etc – Over 7000 different species can potentially be carried in ship’s BW tanks (IMO data) Vast majority won’t survive the journey… BUT, when factors are favorable, damages to host ecosystems are significant (ecologically & economically) Ballast Water European Zebra Mussel believed to have been introduced in Great Lakes through BW – Impacts: Believed to be responsible for extinction of many native species in the GL Threat to human health: Zebra mussels take in hazardous compounds such as PCBs – and enter our food chain through fish and waterfowl that eat the mussels Block pipelines, clogging water intakes of municipal water supplies and hydro companies , etc – Estimated costs: Over $5 billion for industries, businesses and communities Ballast Water International Regime: – In 1991, IMO adopted first set of Guidelines for the control and management of ships’ ballast water Promoted mid-ocean ballast exchange (subject to safety of ship/crew) – In 2004, IMO adopted the Ballast Water Management Convention – requires: BW exchange (“temporary options”) – Limits: safety concerns, salinity tolerance, sediments, etc Onboard BW treatment to be phased in; would be required for all vessels by 2016; and Ship‐specific BW management plan, record book and international BW management certificate Ballast Water Ballast Water International Regime - Challenges: – Availability of BW treatment technology and feasibility of retrofitting vessels In 2004, expectations were that BW treatment technology would be ready by 2009; not the case In summer 2013, only a limited number of vessels had been fitted with onboard BW treatment technologies ; In fall 2013, IMO adopted a resolution to delay implementation – Period of retrofitting for the world fleet will now be between 2017-2021 (instead of the original timeframe of 2016-2019) Types of BW treatment technologies: – Chemical treatment, heating, filtration, ultraviolet light, chlorination, etc. – There are about 40 BW treatment system approved to date Ballast Water International Regime - Challenges: – Convention not yet in force: Although number of ratifications required (30) has been exceeded (36), necessary percentage of the world fleet (35%) has yet to be reached US has not yet ratified the Convention… – Issues with states developing their own local/regional requirements Ballast Water Canadian Context: – In 1989, Canadian guidelines for voluntary BW exchange for vessels entering the Great Lakes: Precursor to the IMO guidelines… Expanded in 2000 to apply nationally – Legal requirements ( 2006 and 2011) ** Ocean going vessels entering Canadian waters must: – Conduct mandatory mid-ocean BW exchange and/or – Treat BW to IMO standards; and/or – Retain BW onboard Inspection: salinity (30 ppm) of BW measured with a refractometer ** Ballast Water Control and Management Regulations (under the CSA 2001) Ballast Water Canadian Context: – Exclusion for coastal navigation: Not applicable if ships operate solely between certain ports on the west coast and east coast – Eg: Vessels trading between ports North of Cape Cod up to Newfoundland Canadian fleet (including lakers in the Great Lakes) – Canada ratified BW Convention in 2010 Ongoing review of Canadian regulations One scenario: extending requirement to domestic fleet Oil Spills Oil Spills Two main sources of oil spills (accidental): – Vessels using oil /bunker as fuel for transportation; – Tankers carrying oil as cargo *** Operational discharges of oily waste will be addressed later Oil Spills Oil spills from tankers have decreased significantly, while oil trade has increased… Source” Intertanko, Jeddah, 31 May 2010 Oil Spills International Regime: – International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) – Annex 1 Phasing out of single-hull tankers Requirements for vessels to carry a shipboard oil pollution plan, etc – International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC 90) Countries that have ratified the Convention must establish measures to deal with oil pollution in their waters, either nationally or regionally Ships required to carry a shipboard oil pollution emergency plan; report any oil spill incidents to coastal authorities; Requirements for stockpiling adequate equipment for combating oil spills, holding exercises and training, etc. Oil Spills International Regime: – Civil Liability Conventions (CLC) – Ensure adequate compensation to cover oil pollution damage resulting from maritime casualties involving oil CLC for Oil Pollution imposes strict (no fault) liability on shipowner for pollution damage from tankers; however, NOT absolute liability – i.e. Convention and its Protocol set financial liability for any one incident (unless shipowner is at fault) shipowners must have insurance/security to demonstrate ability to meet financial liability (1992 CLC Certificate) International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund complements CLC Convention & Protocol by establishing international fund with additional compensation for victims of pollution damage when CLC compensation is inadequate or unobtainable; burden is shared between shipowners and cargo interests CLC for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage addresses liability for pollution damages resulting from bunkers of ships other than tankers; provides for compulsory insurance This civil liability regime implemented in Canada through Marine Liability Act Oil Spills Canadian Regime - Ship’s source oil pollution prevention, preparedness and response regime: – Regulatory agencies Transport Canada (TC), Canadian Coast Guard and Environment Canada – Since 2010 only double hulled foreign flagged tankers calling in Canadian waters – All non-Canadian flag tankers inspected by TC Marine Safety on their first call to Canada in each calendar year Ensure that tankers operate at norms Oil Spills Canadian Regime: – Oil Spill response organizations (ROs) certified by TC under the Canada Shipping Act to respond to oil spills Regional framework: 4 ROs to cover Canadian waters – All ships in waters under Canadian jurisdiction (South of 60N) must have: – An oil pollution emergency plan on board; and – A contract with a TC certified oil spill RO that can respond to an oil spill anywhere the ship will travel in Canada – Ships pay an annual fee to ROs to maintain the level of preparedness to respond to a spill (private services as opposed to governmental services) Oil Spills Oil Spills Ongoing review of Canada's Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Regime – Designed to: – Review structure/effectiveness of the response regime (public/private partnership) – Assess adequacy of liability and compensation regime – Review tanker safety issues – Assess needs in Arctic waters (North of 60N) – Assess how to address increased risks of chemical spills in Canadian waters (including LNG) Timeframe: First report due Nov 2013 (existing regime), second report due Sept. 2014 (Arctic & HNS/LNG response regime) Review panel has heard from 100+ stakehlders so far (see TC website) Marine Waste Garbage Environmental footprint of ship’s garbage (estimates) – 70% immediately sinks to bottom of ocean – 15% washed up on the shore – 15% floats on or just under ocean’s surface(garbage islands) How long for an object to dissolve at sea? – – – – Painted wood:13 yrs Tin can:100 yrs Aluminum cans: 200-500 yrs Plastic bottles: 450 yrs Source: Hellenic Marine Environment Protection Association Garbage Obligations on vessels: –MARPOL 73/78 - Annex V (revised in Jan 2013) –“Garbage”: Food waste, cargo residues, cleaning agents, plastic domestic oil, incinerator ashes, etc –Total prohibition on disposal of plastic –Total prohibition of discharge of waste in special areas See map (next slide) –Restrictions on discharge of garbage (other than plastic) in coastal waters Garbage Garbage Cargo residues: – Residual cargo that remains on board (in bilges, pipes or cargo tanks) after unloading – These residues end up in the washing waters that are used to clean cargo holds before their next loading – Now considered as “garbage” under revised Annex V of MARPOL 73/73 Garbage Cargo residues and cargo hold washing waters that are not “harmful to the marine environment” (HME) can be discharged under certain conditions: – Outside of special areas: if at least 12 nautical miles from nearest land AND while ship is en route – Within special areas: applies ONLY to washing water, ship must be in transit between ports without adequate reception facilities, ship must be12 nm from shore and en route Cargo residues (sweepings) must be bagged & discharged ashore Garbage Responsibility of shipper to classify cargo residues as HME (or not): – Harmonized classification by Jan 2015 – But in the mean time, challenges from shipowners and shippers Discharge recorded in the ship’s garbage record book Garbage Transitional regime for cargo residues that are “Harmful to the Marine Environment” (HME): – Until Dec. 31, 2015, can be discharged IF NO adequate reception facilities at receiving terminal or next port call (as per info from port authorities); and Discharge is done outside of Special Areas AND as far as practical from nearest land, but no less than 12nm Amount is minimized (i.e., solid bulk cargo residues swept, bagged and discharged ashore, etc) and discharge recorded in ship’s garbage record book Garbage What happens if cargoes residues – washing waters cannot be discharged? – Must be discharged ashore prior to leaving berth or be stored in a ship’s tank during passage – Economic costs (time at berth at port, shore disposal costs and/or loading less cargo) Recommended procedures for shipowners to “navigate” these new requirements: – Liaise with charterers, shippers and ports of discharge to determine whether cargo is classified as HME prior to loading and, if it is, to ensure suitable reception facilities are available – Ensure that charterparty will state who pays for these additional costs and who will be liable (if cargo residue not appropriately disposed of) Garbage Simplified overview of the discharge provisions of the revised MARPOL Annex V which entered into force on 1 January 2013 DISCLAIMER: Additional requirements may apply. This simplified overview is for information or reference purposes only and is not meant as a substitute for the comprehensive provisions in the revised MARPOL Annex V (resolution MEPC.201(62)) or the 2012 Guidelines for the Implementation of MARPOL Annex V (resolution MEPC.219(63)). Type of garbage Ships outside special areas Ships within special areas Offshore platforms and all ships within 500 m of such platforms Food waste comminuted or ground Discharge permitted ≥3 nm from the nearest land and en route Discharge permitted ≥12 nm from the nearest land and en route Discharge permitted ≥12 nm from the nearest land Food waste not comminuted or ground Discharge permitted ≥12 nm from the nearest land and en route Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Cargo residues1 not contained in wash water Cargo residues1 contained in wash water Discharge permitted ≥12 nm from the nearest land and en route Discharge only permitted 2 in specific circumstances Discharge prohibited and ≥12 nm from the nearest land and en route Discharge only permitted 2 in specific circumstances Discharge prohibited and ≥12 nm from the nearest land and en route Cleaning agents and additives1 contained in cargo hold wash water Discharge permitted Cleaning agents and additives1 contained in deck and external surfaces wash water Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited Carcasses of animals carried on board as cargo and which died during the voyage Discharge permitted as far from the nearest land as possible and en route Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited All other garbage including plastics, domestic wastes, cooking oil, incinerator ashes, operational wastes and fishing gear Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Mixed garbage When garbage is mixed with or contaminated by other substances prohibited from discharge or having different discharge requirements, the more stringent requirements shall apply 1 These substances must not be harmful to the marine environment. 2 According to regulation 6.1.2 of MARPOL Annex V, the discharge shall only be allowed if: (a) both the port of departure and the next port of destination are within the special area and the ship will not transit outside the special area between these ports (regulation 6.1.2.2); and (b) if no adequate reception facilities are available at those ports (regulation 6.1.2.3). Garbage Garbage management on board vessels: – Incinerators (for paper, packaging material, food waste, glass, etc) Incinerator ashes discharged ashore or in accordance with Annex V – Grinder (for food), compacters (for cans), crushers (for glass) To minimize volume - BMPs to reduce wastes at the source and promote discharge ashore (including recycling) Garbage Canadian Context: Transport Canada has not yet updated its legislation to reflect the revised Annex V of MARPOL 73/78 In the meantime, existing Canadian requirements found in Division 5 of the Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations General prohibition on disposal of garbage in internal waters, fishing zones and arctic waters Some exceptions - including (s. 101) Garbage, when vessels more than 12nm from nearest land (except plastic and dunnage) Garbage that has gone through a comminuter or grinder, so long as the vessel is more than 3nm from shore Cargo residues under certain conditions (sections 101 and 102) Garbage Shore reception facilities MARPOL 73/78 - Annex V – State party to Annex V MARPOL shall ensure that ports under their jurisdiction provide “adequate” reception facilities to ships – What does “adequate” mean? Not causing “undue delay” to ships and meeting their needs – 24/24hrs & 7/7 days? – Economically accessible? Currently, waste reception facilities NOT available at all ports Sewage Definitions: – Black Water: Wastewater containing faecal matter and urine as well as medical facility waters – Grey water: Water generated from domestic activities such as dishwashing, laundry and bathing Issues: – Discharge of raw sewage in ocean and coastal sheltered water can create health hazards and damage to receiving ecosystems (eutrophication, visual pollution, etc) Sewage International Regime: Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78 (Sewage): – Only regulates black water; does not apply to gray water – Prohibits discharge of sewage (black water) into sea: Unless ship has an approved sewage treatment plant in operation; or The ship has an approved sewage comminuting and disinfecting system AND ship is 3 nm from nearest land – Sewage not comminuted and desinfected must be kept in holding tanks and discharged ≥ 12nm from the nearest land Sewage Canadian Regime: Canada has not ratified Annex IV Legislative framework under division 4 of the Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations: Blackwater: – Ships must have approved marine sanitation system (or toilet with holding tanks) – Prohibition against discharging untreated sewage in Canadian inland waters and coastal waters within 12nm; Specific requirements for discharge of treated sewage (limits on faecal coliforms) Greywater: – Must ensure that release does not result in deposits of solids or leave a sheen on the water (subsection 4) – Specific requirements for passenger vessels (subsection 5) Oily Residues from Engine Room Oily residues are a normal by-product of a ship’s operations and can be generated by: – Treating bunkers (which ships use as fuel) – Bilge water that is produced from cleaning a ship’s machinery spaces: This water is often contaminated with fuel oils and lubricating oils and accumulates in bilges (residual collection tanks) of the engine room Oily Residues from Engine Room International Regime: Annex 1 – MARPOL 73/78 – Prohibits discharge at sea of oily mixtures except under certain conditions Ship is not in a special area (see notes) Ship has an approved oily water separator onboard Ship is en route AND bilge water that is discharged (after being processed through the oily water separator) results in an effluent that has an oil content less than 15 parts per million (ppm) – Alternatively, retain in holding tanks until discharged at shore Lack of proper reception facilities despite obligation imposed on port states.. Oily Residues from Engine Room Canadian regime: Division 1 of the Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations incorporates requirements of Annex 1 MARPOL; However, it provides for stricter requirements for discharges in Canadian inland waters: – Limited to a 5 ppm limit oily content - as opposed to the 15 ppm (under MARPOL) – Ships must be equipped with a 5ppm bilge alarm system – Zero discharge in Arctic waters Oily Residues from Engine Room Primary objective should be to reduce oily water residues through operational procedures Shipping Federation’s Code of Best Practices for Managing Oily Water Waste in Ship’s Engine Rooms Minimize amount of water, condensation, oil, lubricants, gray water etc., collecting in the engine -room bilges through rigorous maintenance of machinery and proper use of receptacles and drip pans; Clean bilges regularly and remove any solid material that may reduce the performance of the oily water separator (OWS); etc Oily Residues from Engine Room Illegal operational discharge of oily water off Canadian coasts – Chronic pollution? Not unique to Canada: According to some estimates, 300,000 birds killed off of Newfoundland's coast every year Independently of debates on accuracy of above figures, Canadian measures to prevent these illegal discharges include: – – Aircraft surveillance Increased enforcement and higher fines Legislative amendments to Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 and Canadian Environmental Protection Act (1999) Some issues with the legislative means but several shipowners support the objectives Marine Waste - Overview Marine Waste - Overview Air Emissions From Ships SOx and NOx Emissions What is the main issue: – Combustion of ship’s fuel (marine bunkers) produces: Sulphur Oxides (Sox) Nitrogen Oxide (Nox) Particles (fine dust) called particulate matter (PM) – These gases and particles are harmful to human health (air quality problems), the oceans and the atmosphere (acidification, etc.) SOx and NOx Emissions SOx emissions can be reduced by decreasing the sulphur content in the fuel supplied to the vessel; this will also lead to lower PM emissions – Use of fuel with low sulphur content Move from heavy oil to distillate/diesel oil which contains less sulphur; or – Technological improvements (green technologies) EG: Use of scrubbers to reduce SOX from exhaust; certain studies show this can reduce Sox up to 85% NOx emissions can be reduced by improving engine (diesel engine) efficiency SOx and NOx Emissions International Regime: Annex VI – MARPOL 73/78 – Imposes limits on emissions of Sox & PMs from ships Global SOx cap: – – Current: 3.5% (reduced from 4.5% as of Jan 2012) By 2020: progressively reduced to 0.5%, subject to feasibility Stricter in Emission Control Areas (ECAs) – – – Current: 1% Jan 2015 will be further reduced to 0.1% ECAs: North America is an ECAs SOx and NOx emissions Challenges linked to increased SOx limits: – Availability of low sulphur fuel: Increased demand for distillate demand; availability on the market? Extra costs… Fuel costs already represent ≥ 50% of operating costs – Alternatives : Use of Scrubbers – Challenges: costs (up to $2 million in some cases), will there be enough space on board, crew training, etc Use of Liquid Natural Gas as fuel SOx and NOx Emissions International Regime: Annex VI – MARPOL 73/78 – Imposes limits on emissions of NOx Optimize fuel combustion to reduce NOX emissions Limits apply to “new vessels only” i.e., built after 2000 Limits in term of grams of NOx per KWT / depends on the engine’s maximum operating speed (rpm) – – Global limits for Tier I and II levels Stricter limits in ECAs that cover NOx ( Tier III level) SOx and NOx Emissions NOx emission limits under MARPOL Annex VI Tier Ship Construction date on or after Engine Speed N= engine rated speed n<130 rpm n=130-1999rpm N>2000 rpm I 1 January 2000 17.0 grams/KWh 45 x n-0.2 g/Kwh 9.8 g/KWh II 1 January 2011 14.4 grams/KWh 44 x n-0.23 g/Kwh 7.7 g/KWh III 1 January 2016 3.4 grams/KWh 9 x n-0.2 g/Kwh 2.0 g/KWh Source: IMO website SOx and NOx Emissions Existing emission control areas Area Pollutant controlled Adopted Entered into force Baltic Sea SOx 1997 2005 North Sea SOx 2005 2006 North America Sox, Nox, PMs 2010 2012 US Carribean Sox, Nox, PMs 2011 2014 North America ECA include most of Canada and US costs SOx and NOx emissions ECA in North America SOx and NOx Emissions Canadian Approach: Differentiation between foreign flag (ocean going) and domestic (Canadian) vessels – Foreign flag vessels: ECA limits to also apply when vessels transiting in Great Lakes & St. Lawrence River – Domestic vessels – Applied on a fleet averaging basis for vessels trading solely in the GL & St. Lawrence River – Note: At this stage, US does not intend to apply ECA limits to US lakers (although applied to the rest of their internal waters) SOx and NOx Emissions Possible future ECAs CO2 Emissions CO2 is the main greenhouse gas Combustion of marine bunkers produces CO2 Increase of CO2 emissions contributing factor to global warming CO2 Emissions Comparison by sectors Source: Global emissions of CO2 in 2007 (Second IMO GHG Study 2009) CO2 Emissions Ships, the most energy efficient on a tonne-km basis Source: Shipping, World Trade and the Reduction of CO2 emissions, International Chamber of Shipping, CO2 Emissions International shipping accounts for between 2.7% to 4% of global CO2 emissions while transporting 90% of international trade Nevertheless, this percentage may increase by as much as 200-300 percent by 2050 (from 2007 level) due to expected growth in international trade – Demand is the primary driver BUT would not fit with global objective to reduce CO2 emissions – How do we ensure sustainability of marine transportation? CO2 Emissions IMO has identified significant potential for reduction of GHGs / CO2 emissions through technical & operational measures: Could reduce emissions rate by 25% to 75% below current levels CO2 Emissions International Regime: MARPOL Annex VI (Chapter 4): – Entered into force on January 1, 2013 – 2 mandatory mechanisms intended to ensure energy efficiency standard for ships: Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) CO2 Emissions Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) – applies to new ships This a performance-based mechanism requiring specified level of energy efficiency in new ships (technical measures) The EEDI index is based on a continuous improvement approach , i.e., increased requirements over time Set in terms of maximum (Grams of CO2 per tonne-nautical mile (g/t*nm) CO2 Emissions Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SSEMP)– applies to all ships A mechanism for operators to improve the energy efficiency of their ships Mostly translates into operational measures to reduce fuel consumption Several approaches: slow speed, voyage optimization (reduced port time, best route forecasting), optimization of engine & hull maintenance, etc. Involves monitoring energy efficiency performance and reviewing potential for improvement at regular intervals (new technologies, practices) Other Environmental Issues Ship recycling Shoreline rrosion caused by the wake of the ship in narrow passages – Eg: St. Lawrence Impacts on marine mammals Noise (in port) Dust (loading & discharge operations), etc