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Anatomy and Physiology

Consists of many glands
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Pineal
 Thymus
 Thyroid
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Anatomy and Physiology

Consists of many glands
 Parathyroids
 Adrenals
 Pancreatic islets
 Ovaries and testes
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Anatomy and Physiology
Each gland is unique and delivers its
secretion into the bloodstream
 Negative feedback system controls
amount of hormones secreted

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Diagnostic Tests
Endocrine glands that can be physically
examined are the thyroid and testes
 Tests: blood and urine testing for
hormones
 CT and MRI check for tumors or
alteration in organ size

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Pituitary Gland Diseases

Hyperpituitarism
 Increase in activity of pituitary gland
 Oversecretion especially affects growth
hormone leading to excessive growth of
bones and tissues
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Pituitary Gland Diseases

Hyperpituitarism
 If occurs before puberty, giantism occurs
 If occurs in adult, acromegaly occurs
○ Affects small bones of hands, feet, and face
by enlarging them
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Pituitary Gland Diseases

Hypopituitarism
 Abnormal decrease in activity of pituitary
gland
 Effects:
○ Dwarfism
○ Abnormality of secondary sex characteristics
○ Amenorrhea and infertility in adult woman
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Pituitary Gland Diseases

Hypopituitarism
 Adult men may have decreased
testosterone levels and libido
 Decrease in ACTH and TSH may lead to
metabolic disorder
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Pituitary Gland Diseases
Diagnosis of pituitary function: blood test
 Treatment of hypopituitarism: hormone
replacement, monitoring, and
adjustment

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Pituitary Gland Diseases

Diabetes Insipidus
 Caused by decrease in release of
vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone
 Excessive polyuria: urinating 2 to 15 gallons
of urine in 24 hours
 Symptoms may include polydipsia,
hypotension, dizziness, and constipation
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Pituitary Gland Disorders

Diabetes Insipidus
 Diagnosis: urinalysis and water restriction
test
 Urine is colorless with low specific gravity
 Treatment includes administration of
vasopressin
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Thyroid Diseases

Hyperthyroidism
 Thyroid gland secretes excessive thyroxine
 Caused by tumor of thyroid gland
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Thyroid Diseases

Hyperthyroidism
 Symptoms
○ Tachycardia
○ Nervousness
○ Hyperactivity
○ Excessive excitability
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Thyroid Diseases

Hyperthyroidism
 Symptoms
○ Tremendous appetite with weight loss
○ Diarrhea
○ High heat production
○ Moist skin
○ Extreme thirst
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Thyroid Diseases

Hyperthyroidism
 Treatment to reduce thyroxine is often effective
 Surgery may be necessary
 Autoimmune condition: “Graves’ disease”
 Exophthalmos is characteristic symptom
 Treatment: medication, radiation, or surgery
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Thyroid Diseases

Simple Goiter
 Enlargement of thyroid, generally due to
inadequate iodine
 Asymptomatic until thyroid presses on
trachea and esophagus and causes
dyspnea and dysphagia
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Thyroid Diseases

Simple Goiter
 Treatment
○ Potassium iodide followed by iodine in diet
○ Surgery may be necessary to decrease
dysphagia and dyspnea
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Thyroid Diseases

Hypothyroidism
 Decrease in thyroxine
 Symptoms
○ Fatigue
○ Sensitive to cold temperature
○ Thin nails and brittle hair
○ Excessive weight gain
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Thyroid Diseases

Hypothyroidism
 Diagnosis is confirmed by blood hormone
level
 Treatment is hormone replacement
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Parathyroid Diseases
Parathyroid glands function in the
regulation of blood calcium levels
 Hyperparathyroidism

 Overproduction of parathormones by one or
more of the four parathyroid glands
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Parathyroid Diseases

Hyperparathyroidism
 Causes hypercalcemia leading to kidney
stones, bone weakness, hyperactivity of
heart
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Parathyroid Diseases

Hyperparathyroidism
 Diagnosis is based on blood test results
 Treatment is directed at cause
 Prognosis is good with proper treatment
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Parathyroid Diseases

Hypoparathyroidism
 Decrease in parathormone leading to low
blood calcium
 May cause irritability of muscles called
tetany
 Causes uncontrolled contraction of muscles
in face and hands
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Parathyroid Diseases

Hypoparathyroidism
 Diagnosis involves checking for Chvostek’s
and Trousseau’s signs
 Treatment: vitamin D and calcium
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Adrenal Gland Diseases
Also called suprarenals
 Two distinct parts
 Inner: medulla releases epinephrine and
norepinephrine or “fight or flight” hormones
 Outer: cortex controlled by
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

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Adrenal Gland Diseases
Secretes mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones
 Cortisone used to treat inflammatory
disease
 Cortisone should be used short term
only
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Adrenal Gland Diseases

Cortisone side effects
 Hypertension
 Ulcers
 “Moon face”
 Drowsiness may mask symptoms of
infection
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Adrenal Gland Diseases

Conn’s syndrome- overproduction of
aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid
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Adrenal Gland Diseases
Cushing’s syndrome is overproduction of
glucocorticoid, cortisol
 Androgenital syndrome is
overproduction of sex hormones

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Adrenal Gland Diseases

Hypoadrenalism or Addison’s disease low secretion of hormones by adrenal
cortex
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Pancreas is exocrine and endocrine
gland
 Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and
glucagon

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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Insulin lowers blood sugar and glucagon
increases blood sugar
 Sugar or glucose is primary source of
energy for all tissue cells

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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Without glucose, cells produce a waste
product called ketones
 Diabetes Mellitus - affects carbohydrate
and sugar utilization due to lack of
insulin

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Pancreatic Islets of Langrerhans
Disease

Symptoms
 Polydipsia
 Polyuria
 Polyphagia
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Two types: Type 1 and Type II
 Type 1- Diabetes Mellitus

 Known as insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus
 Most serious
 Affects children and young adults before age
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Two types: Type 1 and Type II
 Type 1 - Diabetes Mellitus

 Requires daily injections of insulin
 Thought to be an autoimmune disorder
 Individuals do not usually secrete insulin,
making control difficult
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Type 1 - Diabetes Mellitus
 Must follow strict diet
 Monitor blood levels
 Administer daily insulin
 Exercise and stress can alter insulin needs
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Type II: Formerly called non-insulindependent Diabetes Mellitus
 Adult-onset diabetes
 Gradual onset occurring most often in obese
females over forty
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Type II: Formerly called non-insulindependent Diabetes Mellitus
 Thought to be caused by the wearing out of
pancreatic islets of Langerhans
 Usually controlled with diet, exercise, and
oral medication to stimulate insulin secretion
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Complications
 Diabetic shock occurs rapidly
 Result of taking too much insulin and not
eating enough food
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Complications
 Symptoms
○ Diaphoresis
○ Light-headedness
○ Trembling
 Treatment is emergent with IV glucose to
raise blood sugar
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Diabetic Coma
 Not enough insulin or too many
carbohydrates in diet
 Symptoms:
○ Polyuria and Polydipsia
○ Dehydration
○ Ketoacidosis
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Diabetic Coma
 Progresses slowly with the individual
becoming lethargic and slipping into coma
 Slow deep breathing pattern and “fruity or
sweet” smelling breath
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Complications of diabetes include
 Atherosclerosis
 Diabetic retinopathy
 Kidney damage
 Diabetes cannot be cured

Diagnosis: history and blood glucose
testing
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease
Gestational Diabetes occurs during
pregnancy
 Usually discovered with routine urine
testing during prenatal visits
 Treatment: diet, exercise, and
medications
 Injectable insulin controls sugar levels

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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Gestational Diabetes
 Usually disappears after delivery
 Women are often affected later in life by
adult-onset diabetes
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Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans
Disease

Hypoglycemia
 Abnormally low blood sugar - less than 60
 Symptoms are light-headedness,
diaphoresis, and trembling
 Diagnosis is confirmed with glucose test
 Treatment is dependent on cause
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Reproductive Gland Disease

Hypergonadism
 Increased hormone production before
puberty
 Diagnosis: blood testing for elevated
hormones
 Treatment: removal or radiation of tumors to
suppress hormones
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Reproductive Gland Disease

Hypogonadism
 Decreased sex hormone production by
puberty
 Treated with hormones
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