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Cutaneous Manifestations of Internal Disease Ronald Buckley, D.O. Dermatology Department Lakeview Medical Center Suffolk,Virginia April 02 2011 Course Objectives: • Cutaneous findings may provide valuable clues to the diagnosis of underlying internal disease. • During this presentation, a limited number of internal diseases manifestations on the skin will be reviewed. Course Objectives • At the conclusion of this talk, the audience will recognize the cutaneous manifestations of internal diseases involving: integument disorders, blistering diseases, internal cancers, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, rheumatic disease, gastrointestinal, and metabolic disease. • Goals – Help the primary care physician to establish the proper diagnosis and management. – Determine the need for referral to the appropriate specialist. Overview 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders Blistering Diseases Internal Cancers Cardiovascular Disease Pulmonary Disease Rheumatic Disease Gastrointestinal Disease Metabolic Disease Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Seborrheic Dermatitis – Chronic and common inflammatory disease. – Location: scalp, face, chest and intertriginous areas. – Clinical appearance: erythematous, often greasy, scaling patches and plaques favor hair bearing areas. Scalp pruritus is common. – Internal Association: HIV/AIDS and Langerhan Cell Histiocytosis (Letterer-Siwe, Hand Schuller-Christian and eosinophilic granuloma). Seborrheic Dermatitis Seborrheic Dermatitis Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Seborrheic Dermatitis – Differential Diagnosis: eczema, psoriasis, tinea infection, zinc deficiency and lupus erythematosus. – Treatment: shampoos, sulfacetamide, azeleic acid, coal tar, topical steroids and topical or oral antifungal. Tinea Facei Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Seborrheic keratoses – Extremely common benign tumor. – Location: Anywhere but most commonly on the trunk. – Clinical appearance: warty plaques and “stuck on” appearance, “greasy” with pseudohorn cysts. Seborrheic keratoses Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Seborrheic keratoses – Internal Association: underlying adenocarcinoma of GI tract if they appear suddenly in great numbers (sign of LeserTrelat). – Differential Diagnosis: Malignant Melanoma. – Treatment: reassurance, cryotherapy, curettage or excision. Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Urticaria and Angioedema – Transient lesions most often triggered by medication (PCN, Sulfa, ASA) or food (nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish), and less so by infection. – Location: Localized, regional, or generalized. – Clinical appearance: edematous papules and plaques with oval, annular, polycyclic, serpiginous, and bizarre shapes. Urticaria Urticaria Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Urticaria and Angioedema – Internal Association: Urticarial vasculitis-type II immune complex reaction. – Urticarial plaques that persists for 24-72 hrs. – Associated with purpura, scaling, and hyperpigmentation. – Differential diagnosis: erythema multiforme, SLE, bullous pemphigoid, mastocytosis. – Treatment: elimination of known causes, antihistamines, systemic steroids, sulfasalazine and cyclosporine. Urticarial Vasculitis Angioedema Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Erythema multiforme – Relatively common- hypersensitive, acute and often recurrent inflammatory process. – Location: backs of hands and feet, extensor surfaces of forearms and arms and less commonly on the trunk. – Clinical Appearance: targetoid, morbilliform, plaques, vesicles or bullae. Erythema multiforme Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Erythema multiforme – Internal Association: HSV, mycoplasma, connective tissue diseases and drugs. – Differential diagnosis: urticaria, drug eruption bullous pemphigoid. – Treatment: oral antiviral for herpes infection; discontinuation of offending medication; oral prednisone and supportive care. Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Vitiligo – Type of acquired leukoderma. Autoimmune disease. – Location: focal (periorificially -mouth ,orbits, vagina, anus), segmental and generalized. – Clinical appearance: Depigmented macules and patches. Vitiligo Vitiligo Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Vitiligo – Internal Association: thyroid dz, diabetes mellitus, pernicious anemia or Addison’s dz. – Differential Diagnosis: pityriasis alba, tinea versicolor, postinflammatory hypopigmentation, hypopigmented mycosis fungoides. – Treatment: sunscreen, topical steroids, tacrolimus or pimecrolimus, phototherapy, skin grafting and depigmentation. Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Erythema nodosum – Most common type of panniculitis. – Location: lower legs (most common in females), knees, arms, rarely face and neck. – Clinical Appearance: painful, indurated, tender, red to violaceous nodules. – Internal Association: Infectious ( streptococcal pharyngitis), drug sensitivity (sulfonamide,oral contraceptives), inflammatory bowel dz and sarcoidosis. Erythema Nodousm Erythema Nodosum Common Benign Cutaneous Disorders • Erythema nodosum – Differential diagnosis: nodular vasculitis and other panniculitis. – Treatment: elimination of known triggers, bed rest, NSAIDs, colchicine, and supersaturated iodide. Life Threatening Cutaneous Disorder • Exfoliative Dermatitis (Erythroderma) – Potentially a life-threatening reaction pattern involving the skin. – Location: generalized . – Clinical appearance: generalized and confluent redness and scaling of the skin with associated systemic “toxicity”, generalized lymphadenopathy, pruritus, malaise, chills, and fever. – Causes: most commonly are preexisting skin diseases: – Psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and drug hypersensitivity. Exfoliative dermatitis Exfoliative dermatitis Life Threatening Cutaneous Disorder • Exfoliative Dermatitis (Erythroderma) – Internal Association: Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma (less commonly), leukemia and pityriasis rubra pilaris. – Differential diagnosis: lichen planus, pemphigus foliaceus, ichthyosiform erythroderma, acute graftversus-host disease. – Treatment: hospitalized in single room with attention to the patient need for temperature control. Water baths with bath oils followed by application of bland emollients. Life Threatening Cutaneous Disorder • Exfoliative Dermatitis (Erythroderma) – Treatment: Oral and topical corticosteroids for remission induction only. – Supportive (cardiac, fluid, electrolyte, protein replacement). Blistering Disorders • Pemphigus vulgaris – Serious acute or chronic debilitating blistering autoimmune disease of the skin and mucous membrane. Often fatal unless treated with immunosuppresive agents. – Location: mouth or generalized. Predilection for the scalp, face chest, axillae, groin, umbilicus. – Clinical appearance: Vesicles and bullae, flaccid, easily ruptured, and weeping, arising on normal skin. Extensive erosions that bleed easily with crusting. Nikolsky’s sign. Blistering Disorders • Pemphigus Vulgaris – Diagnosis: Bx of the skin and mucous membrane, DIF (IgG/C3) and circulating autoantibodies(IgG). – DDX: BP, Steven-Johnson, EBA – Tx: Immunosuppressive agents, systemic corticosteroids, plasmapheresis, topical corticosteroids and antibiotics, rituximab and IVIg. Pemphigus Vulgaris Pemphigus Vulgaris Blistering Disorders • Bullous pemphigoid – Chronic autoimmune mediated bullous eruption in patients over 60 yrs of age. – Location: Generalized or localized and randomly distributed. Rarely involve oral mucosa. – Clinical appearance: Large tense firm-topped bullae. May arise in normal or erythematous skin and often pruritic. Bullous Pemphigoid Blistering Disorders • Bullous pemphigoid – Diagnosis: Clinical, confirmed by histopathology and immunopathology (IgG at DEJ) – Differential Diagnosis: bullous SLE, EBA, cicatricial pemphigoid and DH. – Treatment: excellent prognosis with treatment; topical and systemic corticosteroids, TCN, niacinamide, steroid sparing immunosuppressants. Blistering Disorders • Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) – Intensely pruritic chronic and recurrent eruption. – Location: symmetrical groups on the elbows, knees, scalp, and buttocks. – Clinical appearance: tiny vesicles, papules, and urticarial wheals. Dermatitis Herpetiformis Blistering Disorders • Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) – Internal association: small-bowel malabsorption. Gluten-sensitive enteropathy. – Diagnosis: Clinical, confirmed by histopathology and immunopathology. • Circulating IgA antibodies (antiendomysial antibodies) in 70% pts. – Differential Diagnosis: linear IgA dermatosis, BP, contact dermatitis and bullous LE. – Treatment: dapsone, sulfapyridine, gluten-free diet. Blistering Disorders • Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita (EBA) – Rare autoimmune bullous disease. – Location: hands, feet, elbows, knees and mucous membrane. – Clinical appearance: skin fragility, milia, scarring alopecia, and nail dystrophy, tense blisters on inflammatory or noninflammatory base. Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita Blistering Disorders • Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita (EBA) – Diagnosis: Clinical, confirmed by histopathology and immunopathology. – Differential Diagnosis: bullous pemphigoid bullous LE. – Treatment: Poor response to topical and systemic therapy. Cyclosporine and high dose intravenous immunoglobulins may be effective. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Cutaneous metastases – Occur in less that 5% of patients with metastatic cancer. – Generally reflect the most prevalent cancer in the general population (breast, lung, or GI tract) – Clinical appearance: skin-colored to violaceous nodules in close proximity to the primary neoplasm. – Location: most commonly seen on the head, neck and trunk. – DDx: cyst, adnexal tumor, neurofibroma and lipoma Metastatic Carcinoma Metastatic Carcinoma Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Mammary Paget’s disease – Unilateral breast cancer-nearly always associated with underlying intraductal carcinoma. – Clinical appearance: eczematous plaque of the nipple and areola with exudate that persists for longer than a few weeks. Resistant to topical therapy. – Differential Diagnosis: allergic or irritant contact dermatitis, psoriasis, BCC, Bowens dz. – Treatment: Referral to oncologist, surgery, radiation, photodynamic therapy. Paget’s Disease Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Extramammary Paget’s Disease – Neoplasm of the anogenital and axillary skin. – Histologically and clinically similar to Paget’s dz of the breast. Often represents an intraepidermal extension of primary adenocarcinoma of underlying adnexal (apocrine) carcinoma or underlying cancer of GI tract or GU tract. – Location: vulva, scrotum, penis, perianal, perineal, axilla,umbilicus and sternum. – Clinical appearance: erythematous plaque +/- scaling, crusting, and exudation. Borders sharply defined. Extramammary Paget’s Disease Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Extramammary Paget’s Disease. – Differential Diagnosis: eczematous dermatitis, intertriginous Candida infection, tinea corporis, erythrasma, Bowen’s dx, HPV induced intraepithelial neoplasia, superficial spreading melanoma. – Treatment: surgical excision. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Acanthosis nigricans – most likely triggered by factors that stimulate epidermal keratinocyte and dermal fibroblast proliferation. – benign form- the factor likely insulin or an insulin-like growth factor – malignant AN- stimulating factor secreted either by the tumor or in response to the tumor. Acanthosis Nigricans Acanthosis Nigricans Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Acanthosis Nigricans – Location: groin, axillae, neck. Malignant form has sudden onset and more extensive distribution- face and dorsal and palmar surfaces of hands . – Clinical appearance: smooth, velvet-like, hyperkeratotic plaques of intertriginous areas. – Internal association: Adenocarcinoma – GI, lung, breast. Most common causes are obesity, insulin-resistant diabetes and medications. Tripe Palms Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Acanthosis Nigricans – Differential diagnosis: confluent and reticulated papillomatosis, Dowling-Degos dz. – Treatment: treatment of underlying disorder, including removal of malignant tumor. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Gardner’s syndrome – Autosomal dominant cancer syndrome – Characterized by: • • • • • • Colonic polyposis Osteomas (maxilla, mandible, skull) Scoliosis Epidermoid cysts Soft-tissue tumors (fibromas, desmoid tumors, lipomas) Pigmented ocular fundus lesions – Adenocarcinoma of colon develops in 60% of pts by the age of 40. Epidermal Inclusion Cyst Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Muir-Torre Syndrome – Autosomal dominant cancer syndrome. – Characterized by at least one sebaceous tumor (adenoma, sebaceoma, epithelioma, or carcinoma) and one internal neoplasms, usually colorectal(47%), GU(21%), breast CA(12%) and hematologic(9%) – Clinical appearance: small asymptomatic papules or nodules that resembles cysts or benign growths to waxy papules located mainly of the face, trunk and scalp. Sebaceous Adenoma Sebaceous Neoplasms Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Cowden’s Syndrome – Autosomal dominant. • Mutations in tumor suppressor gene PTEN – Characterized by: • Multiple tricholemmomas (resemble warts) around the mouth, nose and ears. • Breast and thyroid cancer • Fibrocystic disease of the breast • Thyroid adenoma • Mental retardation Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Hirsutism – Appearance of excessive coarse, male-type pattern, hair in woman. – Associated androgen excess (adrenal or ovarian tumor). • Hypertrichosis – Excessive growth of vellus hairs in any hair-bearing areas – Associated with malignancy, metabolic disorders or medications (minoxidil and cyclosporine). Hirsutism Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Sweet’s syndrome (acute neutrophilic dermatosis) – Strong association with acute myelocytic or myelomonocytic leukemia. – Clinical appearance: abrupt onset of tender or painful reddened plaques or nodules occasionally with vesicles, bullae or pustules on the face, extremities, and trunk usually in middle-aged women. Sweet’s Syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis) Sweet’s Syndrome Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Sweet’s syndrome (acute neutrophilic dermatosis) – Associated systemic symptoms: fever, peripheral leukocytosis, arthralgias, myalgias and conjunctivitis. – Differential diagnosis: erythema multiforme, SLE, deep fungal infection, pyoderma gangrenosum, cutaneous metastases. – Treatment: systemic corticosteroids, NSAIDs and dapsone. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Amyloidosis – May be a sign of multiple myeloma. – Clinical: waxy, smooth, shiny, flat-topped or spherical papules, nodules or plaques. “Pinch Purpura” – Location: midface, tongue, scalp, body folds, axillae, umbilicus, anogenital area. – Treatment: no effective therapy, chemotherapy and stem cell transplantation. Primary systemic amyloidosis Macroglossia (Amyloidosis) Purpura (Amyloidosis) Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Dermatomyositis – An inflammatory systemic disease; – Characterized: proximal muscle weakness, photosensitivity, violaceous (heliotrope) inflammatory changes of eyelids and periorbital area, papules and plaques of hands, elbows, and knees (Gottron’s papules). – Elevated creatine kinase or aldolase level, positive Jo-1 antibody, and EKG changes. Heliotrope erythema Gottron’s papules Dermatomyositis Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Dermatomyositis – Other features: scaly, telangiectatic plaques with atrophy and hypopigmentation (poikiloderma) on face, neck, trunk , extremities, malar erythema and nail abnormalities (periungal telangiectases and cuticular hypertrophy). Dermatomyositis Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Dermatomyositis – Diagnosis: requires muscle bx, electromyogram, measurement of muscle enzymes (aldolase, creatine kinase, transaminases). – Internal association: Adenocarcinoma of breast, GI tract or lung in adults. – Differential diagnosis: SLE, photosensitive drug eruption. – Treatment: systemic corticosteroids, MTX, immunosuppressants and TNF alpha inhibitors. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Paraneoplastic pemphigus – Autoimmune disease with clinical and histological features of EM and PV. – Clinical appearance: intractable stomatitis and blisters , conjunctival reactions, polymorphous skin lesions. – Location: oral mucosa, trunk, extremities. Paraneoplastic pemphigus Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Paraneoplastic pemphigus – Internal association: non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, thymoma. – Diagnosis: histopathology and immunopathology. – Treatment: based on underlying dz. Skin Disease and Internal Cancer • Erythema gyratum repens – Rare by most distinctive skin eruption – Clinical appearance: reddened concentric bands in a wood grain or whorled pattern. – Internal association: lung, breast, cervical and GI cancers. – Treatment: removal of cancer clears the eruption. Erythema gyratum repens Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Multiple Lentigines – LEOPARD Syndrome (Moynahan’s) • • • • • • • Lentigines Electrocardiographic changes Ocular telorism Pulmonary stenosis Abnormal genitalia Retarded growth Deafness LEOPARD Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Multiple Lentigines – NAME • • • • Nevi Atrial myxoma Myxoid neurofibromas Ephelides Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Multiple Lentigines – LAMB Syndrome • • • • Lentigines Atrial myxoma Mucocutaneous myxomas Blue nevi Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE) – An inherited or acquired defect of elastic tissue. • Mutations in the gene ABCC6 on chromosome 16 have been linked to PXE. – Clinical appearance: yellow cobblestone lesions over redundant skin folds in flexural location arranged in linear distribution – “plucked chicken”. – Location: Neck and axillae most common sites. Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum (PXE) Angioid Streaks Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE) – Internal association: HTN, peripheral vascular and coronary dz, retinal and GI hemorrhage, strokes and angioid streaks. – Differential diagnosis: cutis laxa, EhlersDanlos syndrome. – Treatment: no definitive therapy. Skin Disease and Cardiovascular Disease • Ehlers-Danlos syndrome – An inherited defect of collagen tissue at least eleven types. – Clinical appearance: hyperextensibility, hypermobility, skin fragility, “fish-mouth” scars. – Internal association: MVP, blue sclerae, aneurysm, aortic dissection, hernias, angina, GI bleeding and peripheral vascular dz. – Treatment: protection of skin and treatment of systemic findings. Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Skin Disease and Pulmonary Disease • Sarcoidosis – Chronic multisystem granulomatous inflammation. – Clinical appearance: red to violaceous plaques of the nose (lupus pernio), midfacial papules, annular plaques, nodules or plaques on trunk and extremities. Erythema nodosum-mt common cutaneous manifestation. – Higher prevalence in women and African Americans. – Differential diagnosis: trichoepitheliomas, rosacea, granuloma annulare. – Treatment: systemic corticosteroids, antimalarials, MTX, thalidomide and TNF alpha inhibitors. Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis Skin Disease and Rheumatic Disease • Psoriatic arthritis – A distinct form of arthritis with negative rheumaotoid factor. • HLA-B27 genotype in 50% of affected patients. – Clinical appearance: five types: • Asymmetric arthritis-most common type with “sausage” fingers and toes • Symmetric arthritis • Distal interphalangeal joint disease • Arthritis mutilans • Ankylosing spondylitis Psoriatic Arthritis Psoriatic Arthritis Skin Disease and Rheumatic Disease • Psoriatic arthritis – Differential diagnosis: rheumatoid arthritis. – Treatment: Biologic agents, NSAID’s, antimalarials, MTX, retinoids, cyclosporine. Skin Disease and Rheumatic Disease • Lupus erythematosus – A multisystem autoimmune photosensitive dermatosis. – Clinical forms: • 1. DLE- localized to head or neck with scarring plaques usually negative ANA. • 2. SCLE-annular plaques on trunk and arms with positive ANA, Ro(SS-A), La(SS-B). • 3. SLE-malar erythema, photosensitivity, oral ulcers, discoid plaques, alopecia, positive- ANA, dsDNA, Ro(SS-A), La(SSB), sm. Discoid Lupus Erythematosus Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Skin Disease and Rheumatic Disease • Lupus erythematosus. – Clinical forms: • 4. Neonatal LE- noticed in first month, photosensitive, papulosquamous and annular patterns, congenital heart block 50% of cases. Maternal passage of antibodies- Ro, La, U 1RNP, Antiphospholipids. • 5. Drug-Induced LE- rash uncommon, ANA, ssDNA, antihistone positive. Procainamide, Hydralazine, Isoniazid. Symptoms clear with stopping the med. – Treatment: Sun protection, steroids, dapsone and immunosuppressants. Neonatal LE Skin Disease and Rheumatic Disease • Reiter’s syndrome – Triad: urethritis, conjunctivitis, and oligoarthritis. – Circinate balanitis-vesicles and crusted plaques. – Keratoderma blennorrhagicum-erythematous pusutles and papules on palms and soles. – Sacroiliitis-present 50% of pt (HLA-B27). – Treatment: topical corticosteroids for skin dz. Skin Disease and Gastrointestinal Disease • Hepatitis C infection association: – – – – – – – – Leukocytoclastic vasculitis Cutaneous B-cell lymphoma Cryoglobulinemia Pruritus Porphyria cutanea tarda Urticaria Prurigo nodularis Lichen planus Leukocytoclastic Vasculitis Skin Disease and Gastrointestinal Disease • Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome – Characterized: lentigines on skin and mucosa-lips, buccal mucosa, periorbital region, dorsal of fingers and soles. – Associated: benign polyps (hamartomas) of small intestine with low malignant potential. – DDx: LEOPARD syndrome, Carney complex and Cronkhite-Canada syndrome – Tx: regular and routine endoscopy and symptomatic treatment. Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome Skin Disease and Gastrointestinal Disease • Pyoderma gangrenosum – Neutrophilic dermatosis with painful ulcers with boggy, undermined edges and a border of gray or purple pigmentation. – Associated: inflammatory bowel dz, rheumatoid arthritis or paraproteinemia usually IgA gammopathy. – Differential diagnosis: infection, vasculitis, factitious disorder. – Treatment: systemic, intralesional and topical corticosteroids; cyclosporine, infliximab and immunosuppressants. Pyoderma Gangrenosum Skin Disease and Metabolic Disease • Porphyrias – A group of inherited or acquired blistering disorders of heme biosynthetic pathway. – Porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT) • • • • Most common porphyria. Hepatic porphyria (acquired/sporadic). Deficiency uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. Accumulation of by products in urine/serum. Porphyria Cutanae Tarda (PCT) Porphyria Cutanae Tarda (PCT) Skin Disease and Metabolic Disease • Porphyrias – Porphyria cutanae tarda (PCT) • Precipitating factors: alcohol ingestion, estrogen administration, dinitrochlorobenzene, carbon, tetrachloride, dialysis, hepatitis B or C infection. • Clinical appearance: photosensitivity, skin fragility, bullae, erosions of sun-exposed skin, milia and hypertrichosis. • Differential diagnosis: bullous SLE, EBA, pseudoporphyria. • Treatment: phlebotomy, antimalarials. Test 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Exfoliative dermatitis Dermatitis herpetiformis Acanthosis nigricans Gardners’s syndrome Muir-Torre Syndrome Cowden’s Syndrome Erythema nodosum Erythema Multiforme Amyloidosis Sweet’s Syndrome • • • • • • • A. HSV/Mycoplasma B. Strep. Pharyngitis C. Psoriasis, Eczema, drug D. Gluten sensitive enteropathy E. Obesity-Insulin resist. DM F. Colonic Polyposis G. Colorectal/GU CA (Sebaceous tumors) • H. Breast & Thyroid CA (Tricholemmomas) • I . Multiple Myeloma • J. AML References • • • • • • • • 1. Longshore S, Tomecki K. The Cleveland clinic disease management project. Skin signs of systemic disease. 2002;1-8. www. Clevelandclinicmeded.com/diseasemanagement/dermatology/skinsigns 2. Von den Driesch P. Sweet’s syndrome (acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis). J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994;31:535. 3. Poole S. Fenske NA. Cutaneous markers of internal malignancy. I, II J Am Acad Dermatol. 1993;28:1,147. 4. Fitzpatrick T, Johnson R et al. Color atlas and synposis of Clinical Dermatology 2 nd edition. 1994. Habif T. Clinical Dermatology: A color guide to diagnosis and treatment. 3 rd edition. 1996. Arndt K, Leboit P et al. Cutaneous medicine and surgery: an integrated program in dermatology. 1996. WWW. Dermnet.com (digital images) WWW. Dermatlas.org