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Chapter 1 – Introduction and Review from last year
Overview – Change comes to Europe
 By 1500, Europe was radically changing from the old
feudal system.
 Lords on the manors
 Serfs in the fields – serving Lords
 Clergy in the church – serving All
 This was especially seen in areas of Politics, Society,
and Economy.
 There were new ideas about Religion and the
(Catholic) Church.
 A Middle Class emerged.
 Global politics and Colonialism changed the world.
Overview – Change comes to Europe
 France was very different.
 Was still a Feudal Society
 Upper Classes and the Church were rich and happy.
 Common people were literally starving.
 New ideas about politics reached France as well. People
had had enough.
 A bloody revolution began in 1789
The beginning of an Era
 Because of changes in its way of
life (political, social, etc),
Europe entered the Early
Modern Age around 1500.
 Concept of “ages” or “eras”
was new, and came from
Renaissance historians.
 Middle Ages (500-1450 AD)
and Early Modern Age are
very distinct.

Middle ages weren’t that great.
WHY? – 1. Kings gain power
 Luther’s 95 Theses in Wittenberg in 1517 was a protest.
He had no idea how far and fast his ideas would spread.
 The Reformation would begin
 Previously everyone was Roman Catholic.
 Suddenly there are PROTESTants everywhere.
 Rejected Pope, Indulgences, etc.
 Political differences now worse because religious
differences added.
WHY? – 1. Kings gain power
 Authority of the Pope under attack.
 Kings seize the opportunity
for power.
 Nobles very powerful before
and could unite against
a king.
 Now nobles divided too.
King needed for strong
central power and order.
 Pope > Kings begins to change.
 Kings saw themselves as not only political leaders, but also
as religious leaders. They wanted to control both
WHY? – 1. Kings gain power
 How they seized power:
 1. Claimed religious control. King sets religion of his




territory.
2. Replaced nobles in areas of govt. with others.
 Promoted the rising middle class. They’d be loyal. No
royal blood.
 Centralized their administration
3. Paid for professional armies and not troops from
nobles.
4. Taxed subjects to pay for armies directly (not Feudal
way).
5. Promoted idea of “Nations.”
WHY? – 2. Economic Prosperity
THINGS GOT BETTER…
 By 1500 the economy was great
 Population boom. Improved agriculture = more food.
 Serf farmers became landowners or Tenant farmers.
 Serf = attached to lord’s land and gives services. (food,
soldiering)
 Tennant = pays rent for use of land to a landlord. Own
boss.
WHY? – 2. Economic Prosperity
 Farming techniques improved
 No more strip farming. Large areas instead
 Specialized in 1 crop. Traded.
 Improved soil, drainage, etc.
 New crops = potatoes, maize (corn).
 People moves to cities for new jobs.
 Cities grew quickly.
Rural into Urban landscape
WHY? – 2. Economic Prosperity
 Increase in trade = interest in other nation’s goods.
 Exploration of world. Global trade
 Made permanent settlements in other parts of the world.





Spanish were first
Soon after came British, French, Dutch.
Began to expand into Empires.
Middle Class = great opportunity for wealth with hard
work.
Nobles = no work.
WHY? – 3. New view of Humanity
 Renaissance = more interest in this life, less in life to
come.
 Believed humans could do anything they set their
minds to.
 Where have we heard that before?
 Gave rise to Humanism.
 Line of thought where human interests are most
important.
 Questioned meaning of life
 New field of Philosophy
WHY? – 3. New view of Humanity
 New ideas spread rapidly. How?
 Printing Press invented.
 More schools (wealthy only)
 Libraries
 Printing of illustrations
 By 1500 = 6 million books printed
 The Theatre (Globe / Shakespeare)


Many new ideas expressed through art.
Could criticize king indirectly.
Chapter 2 – Rule and Revolution in Britain
Our connection to British History
 The key document for Democracy
was the Magna Carta signed in 1215.
It:
 1. Recognized individual freedoms
 2. Required the king to consult an
elected parliament
 3. Required the king to rule lawfully
and justly.
English Society in 1600’s
 At the same time, English society was becoming split
into set groups:
 1. Upper class

King, Advisors, Nobles, High Church Officials
 2. Middle class

Merchants, Manufacturers, Landowners, Military Officers,
Business Professionals
 3. Lower class

Ordinary workers, Soldiers, Farmers, etc.
The Middle class was NEW. Upper class not happy.
English Society in 1600’s
 Class diagram:
Upper Class
Upper Class
Middle Class
Lower Class
Lower Class
The Role of Religion
 By 1600, most of England was Protestant. The king had
split with the Roman Catholic church (Henry VIII) and
established the “Church of England”
 King head of the church
 Anglican denomination
 Elaborate services and ceremonies (not all that
different from Catholic styles)
 Still had Bishops (our elders)
 Some Catholics remained.
The Role of Religion
 The Puritans were a dissenting group in England






They were Calvinists
Wanted services and buildings to be basic and plain
Didn’t like religious artwork (too catholic)
Wore dark clothes
No drinking, gambling, or the theatre
Basically... not very fun to be around.
Believed human nature was very evil, and man needed
strict laws to keep him under control.
The Early Stuart Kings
 Elizabeth died with no
heir. Never married.
 James VI of Scotland
became James I of
England.
 Strong ties to France and
Roman Catholic Church
 Not used to democratic
traditions
 Liked idea of Absolute
Monarch.
The Early Stuart Kings
 Introduced “The Divine Right of Kings” to England.
Not popular.
 Kings have absolute power. Answer only to God
 Magna Carta already in 1215.
 One key element in document was point that
king cannot bring new taxes without the
approval of parliament.
 Also trial by jury for accused.
Divine Right of Kings
“Kings are justly called Gods, for they exercise a power
similar to God’s power upon earth... God has the
power to create or destroy, to make and unmake, at
his Pleasure; to give life or send to death, to judge all
and not be judged or accountable to anyone... Kings
have the same power. They make and unmake their
subjects; they have power of raising and casting down,
or life and death... Judge over all their subjects, yet
accountable to none but God. They have the power to
make their subjects like men of chess... Therefore
kings have absolute power.” - James I to Parliament
Charles I
 Like his father, believed in
Divine Right of Kings.
 Wouldn’t compromise with
parliament.
 Dignified and charming (unlike
daddy), but very aloof and
unapproachable.
 Spent a lot of money. Liked
bling.
 Always out of money as a result.
 Duke of
Buckingham was his
father’s favourite
advisor.
 Total fool. Utterly
despised. But..
Charles kept him
on staff
 Led king into one
disaster after
another.
Trouble with Parliament
 King needed money. Asks parliament for more taxes.
 P. will give it, if king gives them more power.
 Sometimes king refuses
 Other times he agrees and backs out later.
 Charles I looks for ways to get money without
parliament. But how?
Trouble with Parliament
 Brings back ancient fee
called “Ship Money” which
was used in the past for the
king’s navy.
 Charles spends money on
himself, not on ships.
 Collects customs fees on the
tons or pounds of goods
leaving the country.
 = Tunnage and Poundage
 Billetted soldiers in people’s
homes.
 Forces nobles to make loans
 Increased fees for govt. titles
to the crown.
 Sold noble titles to anyone
 Mortgages royal properties
who would give him money...
for cash
Or forced landowners to pay
for a knighthood.
Trouble with Parliament
 Set up a secret police and
secret court called Court of
Star Chamber.
 Could arrest, imprison, fine
anyone he didn’t like.
 No rights for accused.
 King calls together
parliament in 1628.
 Parliament = no money
until you stop... And sign a
charter called “The Petition
of Right.”

 Even with all this, he didn’t
have enough money.
 Like the 12-year-old with a
copy of his dad’s credit
card.


Innocent until proven guilty
No imprisonment without
charge
No punishment without jury
 King dissolves parliament
and vows to rule country
without it.
The Long Parliament
 By 1637, Charles was in real trouble.
 English people mad on political and religious grounds.
 Charles is still king of Scotland too... Since his dad was.

In 1637 he tries to set up a Church of England style of
worship in Scotland. Bad idea.
The Long Parliament


Scots are Presbyterians. Rise up in full revolt.
King needs to send soldiers to put down revolt... But you
need to pay your soldiers now (professional army)
 King calls together parliament in 1640. Called Short
Parliament.
 Parliament not a fan of the king... Sides with the Scots and
gives no money.
 King disbands parliament and locks the doors.
The Long Parliament
 Still no money...
 Parliament goes further...
 Kings calls a whole new
 Wanted to pass Grand
Parliament (new people)
Remonstrance – would
 Called Long Parliament
change role of king in govt.
(sits for 13 years)
and remove many of his
some pee breaks.
powers.
 New Parliament even less
 However, debate over how
happy with Charles.
far to go.
 Demands that Laud and
Strafford be handed over.
 Charles thinks if he arrests

King agrees. Parliament
executes both.
the ringleaders, he’ll get
control again.
The Long Parliament
 Leading 500 soldiers, in
person, Charles invades House
of Commons (illegal) and tries
to arrest leaders.
 Leaders tipped off, and already
gone.
 Parliament calls for an army to
fight the King.

Open rebellion.
 King and wife flee to
Nottingham (more support
there).

Queen takes Crown Jewels to
pawn in Europe to pay for army.
The Civil War
 Began in 1642 and lasted 7  King needs a fast victory, but
can’t get it. Small ones only.
years.
 Parliament makes deal with
 King had nobles and
professional soldiers. Good the rebelling Scots, and they
attack King from the north
at warfare
 Leader of this is Oliver
 Parliament had farmers
Cromwell. A Puritan.
and townspeople with
no military experience
 Troops very disciplined, well
 However, parliament
controlled navy and
richest parts of the
country.
trained, very religious.
The Trial of the King
 Charles loses war. Is captured. Put on trial for treason
 Definition is an act of trying to overthrow a king. Huh?
 Magna Carta promises a jury of one’s peers. Who is peer
to the king?
 Charged with murder, causing rebellion, unlawful actions,
and generally being a jerk.
 Sentenced to death.
 King woke on day of execution
 Dressed well. Ate.
 Made short speech.
 Died with considerable dignity.
 Forgiveness speech.
 Miracles?
The Triumph of Parliament
 Killing the king doesn’t make
England a Republic (like
France)
 Charles’ son would
automatically become king...
 ... Until parliament voted to
abolish the monarchy and the
House of Lords. Which they
did. (Rump Parliament did it)
 But that wasn’t without
protest

Many liked idea of a monarch,
just not that last one they had.
The Lord Protector
 Cromwell lost patience with
parliament. Army wanted
more influence... and to be
paid for services.
 Cromwell invaded parliament,
drove out members, locked
door, kept the key.

Remind you of anyone?
 Soon Cromwell was named
“Lord Protector” of England
 Divided country into districts
with overseers for law, taxes.
The Lord Protector
 Ruled as a dictator
 “Blue Laws” were very Puritan and Calvinist.
Shut down theatres
 Cancelled Christmas
 No dancing or drinking
 No sports
 Died in 1658, unhappy with himself. Wanted to
end dictatorship of king, but became a worse
dictator himself.

The Glorious Revolution
 Charles II dies in 1685
 Son James II is openly
Catholic
 Became king
 Gave high offices to Catholics
 Planned to make England Catholic officially
 Believed in “Divine Right of Kings.”
 Rebellions broke out
 James II’s reign of terror begins.
 Executed many ‘suspected’ rebels. People not ready for
another lousy king.
The Glorious Revolution
 Parliament not happy.
 In 1688 they contacted James’ daughter Mary
(protestant) and her husband, William of Orange, to
become rulers of England.
 Happy to agree to that.
 James’ supporters fled England
 James himself flees too. Abdicates
 No bloodshed. Called “Glorious Revolution”
The Glorious Revolution
 New rulers agree to a Bill of Rights for citizens.
 First time monarch chosen by parliament and not by
hereditary right.
 “Divine Right” was over.
 Canadian constitution drawn heavily from 1689 “Bill of
Rights”
 Social reform still to come.
 Poor still not well off or represented.
James I
 Occasionally intelligent
 “Wisest fool in
Christendom”
 Heavy Scottish accent
 Slovenly, unkempt habits
 Tongue too large for his
mouth.
 Acted like a tyrant
 Incompetent people as
advisors (friends)
 Gave friends special titles
 Some good stuff...
 One of the very first
non-smoking advocates.
Published a pamphlet
for his subjects.
 And his most famous
contribution... The King
James Bible
Witches
 With a sometimes
Puritan sensitivity to
“evil” 1600’s people often
looked for witches.
 Suspicion fell on anyone
who didn’t fit into
society.
 Widows
 Users of natural
medicine
 Sellers of ‘love potions’
 Women most often
suspect... Original sin.
 Eve tempted Adam
 Story of a second
 In England, Scotland,
and America, a witchhunt hysteria took over.
 Movie The Crucible
Witches
 Over 200,000 people were executed in Eng. & Europe
 Most innocent of any crime. Blamed for almost anything.
 It was considered ok to torture people to bring out a
confession of witchcraft.
 Would confess to anything... name anyone.
 Professional witch hunters made good money.
 People got rid of rivals
Social Studies 9
Chapter 03 – Revolution in France
New Ideas
• During this time, many new ideas about society were being
published and discussed.
• These ideas were the catalyst for the revolution
▫ (Something that makes other things change)
• Philosophes met regularly. Rejected idea of absolute
monarchy. Democracy instead.
• Believed in science and logic to explain the world.
New Ideas
• France Catholic for centuries, but many thinkers were
against any religion.
▫ Too old fashioned and superstitious in an age of
“Enlightenment”
▫ Anything that could not stand up to logic and reason was
discarded
▫ British thinkers influenced them strongly:
 Isaac Newton – Gravity
 John Locke – Empiricism
(Knowledge of world only through personal experience)
New Ideas
• All this contrary to religion and the Church.
▫ Faced repression of ideas
▫ Church and monarchy needed to change... Or needed to
go.
▫ Big pushers in thought in France were Rousseau, Voltaire,
and Montesquieu
▫ Voltaire
 Against church and repression of thought
 Absolute monarch can be good. Supported the idea of
one.... but
 Hated injustice
 Defended victims of superstition and prejudice
New Ideas
▫ Rousseau
 Society needs a “Social Contract” in which everyone
abides by certain rules
 Believed in “Natural Law”
 People naturally good and know what’s right.
 Civilization = bad. Destroys the goodness in human
beings
 Feelings more important than thinking
 Voltaire strongly disagreed with him.
Most thinkers were wealthy and had time to discuss. Books
and newspapers censored by Church. Some imprisoned
or left France.
Upper Classes / Royalty
• England had democratic
traditions. Not so in France.
• A bloody revolution needed to
overthrow the monarch and
bring rights for ordinary
citizens.
• Revolution not unexpected:
▫ French rulers lost touch with
people.
▫ Country heavily in debt
▫ Taxes very high
▫ Poor without hope
▫ Rich lived lavishly
The Peasants
• French farmers owned small
pieces of land and used
primitive farming methods.
• Land produced less per hectare
than other European nations
• Peasants worked very hard
• Most were illiterate
• Part of time spent working on
lord’s land and fields
• Could not hunt or shoot wild
animals that destroyed crops or
killed cattle.
▫ Lord liked to hunt those.
▫ Could chase animals through fields in
hunt
The Bourgeoisie / Business and Trade
• Middle class. Invested in new business.
• Laws and regulations limited their potential
• Monopolies held in certain industries. Only one business
gets to sell in a certain area.
• Some guilds received special status from the king and
could control how much was made and by whom
• Many districts in country, with tariffs and tolls as goods
moved around. Costly.
• Lack of good roads for travel
Louis XIV – The Sun King
• Louis XIV ruled France 72
• Forced many nobles to live
years.
there with him.
• Set new levels of decadence
• Became the center of their
and control.
lives. Everything they did
needed his approval.
• Absolute monarch
• Invited to dozens of
• “Etat c’est moi” – I am the
ceremonies through the day:
nation.
▫ Royal getting up
• Massive palace in village of
▫ Royal breakfast, lunch, dinner
Versailles, southwest of Paris.
▫ Royal going to bed
▫ Etc.
• Needed to take ballet to learn
to be graceful and elegant
around the king.
Louis XIV – The Sun King
• Nobles not part of
government. Not consulted,
made no laws.
• Louis and a few close advisors
did it all. King’s word is law.
• Nobles did menial tasks, such
as hold mirror for king, towel
him off after a bath, help him
shave.
• Closer in intimacy the job
was, the better the favour.
• Closest job = chamber pot.
Louis XV and Louis XVI
• Louis XV king. Greatgrandson of Louis XIV.
• Became king at age 5. 1715
• Continued economic decline
• Louis XVI king in 1774
• Not interested in governing
and left many decisions to
others.
• Little done to improve
conditions of lower and
middle classes.
• No understanding of
problems in the country
• Taxes overwhelming
▫ To ship goods across France from
Paris to Mediterranean sea = 30
separate taxes.
• Middle class well informed...
And restless.
▫ Why was the king doing nothing
to fix problems in the country?
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
• Louis married Marie in 1770. • Spent fortune on self while
• Member of the Austrian royal
people starved to death
family
• Very strong willed, with firm
▫ Austria was a French enemy.
opinions on government, but
Marriage to bring peace, but she
no learning or experience to
was hated from the start.
back them.
• Offended many aristocrats
▫ Helped select govt. Ministers
with her attitude towards
with no understanding of what
traditional French manners
they did.
▫ Fired people doing a great job
• Idealized view of peasant life.
▫ Built own farm to play with
• Very extravagant.
▫ Spent huge $$ on jewels
because she didn’t like them.
 Controller general fired for
suggesting the super wealthy
pay a tax as well.
A Revolution begins
• Money spent by crown came from
exploiting poor, not from new
business revenue.
• France basically bankrupt during
Louis XVI’s reign.
• People openly discussed failures of
government
• Some riots in streets
• Royal court split in two
▫ Some with Louis and economic
change. Was he waking up?
▫ Some with Marie Antoinette and
more power for nobles.
• Middle class demanded a
form of Democracy.
• Some French helped United
States in their revolution
against Britain. Liked their
ideals. Read American
“Declaration of
Independence”
• France seemed so
backward to America
..and even England.
A Revolution begins
• Other Problems making this worse:
▫ Series of famines and disasters in 1780s.
▫ Families broke up. Starving.
▫ 40,000 children abandoned each year.
▫ British Industrial
Revolution putting French out of work
 Textiles by machine instead of many workers.
▫ Unemployment rates climbed
▫ Mobs becoming violent
and unpredictable.
 Louis responded by prison
and executions
 Soldiers fired on crowds
A Revolution begins
• Desperate for money and ideas, Louis calls together
representatives of the people into the Estates General.
• Only could meet when called by the King.
• Three levels:
▫ 1. Clergy the first level
▫ 2. Aristocrats the second level
▫ 3. Middle Class the third level
▫ Each group voted as a unit,
called a Bloc. This meant
higher 2 classes had 2:1
vote against lower
Middle Class
A Revolution begins
• Louis’ capable controller of finances
had been fired by Marie.
(A.R. Turgot)
• Came with new controller and the
hope of raising money, stopping
riots.
• Louis knew Estate would want more
say in govt, and planned to give tiny
responsibilities in tax system.
▫ Members of the Estates General
would not bow to king’s wishes
▫ Yet, some optimism that change
could come.
• Ordinary people
realized something big
was happening and
came to Versailles.
• After six weeks of little
progress, the third
estate broke off and
stated they would
form a new
government called the
National Assembly.
▫ Their goal was a
new constitution for
France.
Revolutionary Spirit Grows
▫ King tried to lock them
out of their meeting hall
▫ Delegates met at royal
tennis courts and took the
Tennis Court Oath, that
stated they would not
disband until France had
a new form of
government.
• Louis offered some
reforms, but offer was
rejected.
• Louis forced to compel
the other two estates to
join the National
Assembly.
• Joyful crowds filled the
streets, convinced the
“revolution” was over,
and had been a success.
The Fall of the Bastille
• Calm didn’t last long. More riots in Paris and elsewhere over
high cost of bread.
• Mobs attacked prisons to free political prisoners.
• Revolution getting a life of its own. Leaders lost control of it.
• King sends foreign mercenary troops to Paris and Versailles.
• People assume the worst and arm themselves.
• On July 14, 1789, a mob attacked the French fortress and
prison known as The Bastille.
• Troops sent out to stop the mob joined it instead.
• Only seven prisoners in there, but all were released.
• Governor’s head was cut off and paraded through the streets.
The Fall of the Bastille
• Louis agreed to send the
mercenaries away
• Revolutionaries formed a new
army – “National Guard”
▫ Commanded by Marquis de
Lafayette, a French hero
from the American
Revolution.
▫ This man knew revolution
and battle well... and had
seen victory.
Paris and the King
• On August 4, 1789, the
National Assembly met in
Versailles.
▫ Abolished all Feudal rights and
privileges
▫ Declared all people equal under
the law.
▫ Women attacked the
National Assembly.
(weren’t they on their
side?)
▫ Women stormed the palace
and demanded to see the
• Problems still with the food
king.
crisis. National Assembly had no
immediate answers. Still needed
the king.
▫ Reluctantly the king and
▫ Crowds of women met in Paris
and made the 50 km march to
Versailles
▫ National Guard followed behind.
queen agreed to come to
Paris.
Declaration of Rights
• Later in August, National
Assembly passes “The
Declaration of the Rights of
Man and the Citizen”
▫ Much like the American Declaration
of Independence.
▫ Set out basic human rights the
government could not overlook
▫ Guaranteed freedom of thought,
speech, religion, security, and
property.
▫ Put limits on the power of the
government.
• Assembly worked fast to
release a new Constitution.
▫ Old system swept away
▫ Titles for nobles declared
obsolete
▫ Everyone given title of
“Citizen”
▫ Government seized control
of church and its property
▫ Certificates of money, called
assignats were issued, to be
redeemed when Church
lands were sold.
Political Clubs and Factions
• A final stage of the revolution
began... And it was brutal.
• Split began between moderates
and radicals.
• Anyone not radical fell under
suspicion of being loyal to
monarchy.
• Groups split into political clubs.
No parties formed yet.
• Clubs met regularly and wrote
pamphlets outlining their views.
• Two most important clubs were
the Girondists and the Jacobins.
• Both started out as moderates
and middle class.
• Girondists wanted sweeping
changes, but seen as too
conservative by some
revolutionaries.
• Jacobins became more and more
radical, and took power.
▫ Many Girondists sent to their
deaths at the guillotine.
Political Clubs and Factions
• The sans-culottes were a group
of lower-middle class people
from Paris and larger cities. The
working men and women.
• Resented the bourgeoisie and
were against reforms that would
help the business class.
• Wanted lower prices and bread
for the poor. Needed immediate
results for food crisis.
• Became very violent. Formed
mobs and attacked anyone
suspected of being against the
revolution.
• Supported radicals who wanted
to execute the king.
• Killed many well-meaning
people and supporters.
• The country became involved in
a war with Austria and Prussia,
and the prisons were full of
political prisoners
(Girondists, Monarchists, etc.)
• Fear that Austrian victory would
free these enemies of the state.
• They attacked the prisons, and
killed 1600 men, women, priests,
nuns, and others. Raped the
women first. Very brutal deaths.
Political Clubs and Factions
• Jean-Paul Marat, Jacques
Danton, and Maximilien
Robespierre were the radical
leaders of the revolution.
• Wanted king’s execution.
“King must die so the
revolution can live.”
• Marat, most radical of the three,
was assassinated by Charlotte
Corday, a Girondist in 1793.
• Danton and Robespierre would
take control of the National
Assembly and the revolution.
• Marat treated like a holy saint.
The end of the Monarchy
• A newly elected body, the
National Convention decided
that the king should be tried for
his crimes and executed.
• His royal palace at Versailles had
already been looted and burned
by Paris mobs.
• Louis was now just called,
“Citizen Louis Capet”
• He was tried and found guilty.
• Louis XIV went to the guillotine
on January 21, 1793.
• Marie Antoinette went to her
death in October of the same
year.
• Trial and executions happened
because Girondists had lost to
more radical groups.
• All “enemies of the revolution”
and all Girondists were arrested
and imprisoned.
• Law of Suspects provided for the
arrest and execution of anyone
from a noble family or who had
held political office before the
revolution.
The Reign of Terror (1793 – 1794)
• There was a complete
• It is estimated that 37,000 were
reorganization of the armed
guillotined during the Reign of
forces.
Terror.
• People who tried to make money
during the food shortages were
▫ Approximately 50 per day
executed.
• All bakeries and granaries came
under government control.
▫ 4 people every daylight
• Robespierre took total control,
hour
even sending Danton to his
death in 1794.
• Many sans-culottes also
executed.
• Anyone who challenged
Robespierre in any way.
The fall of Robespierre
• When Robespierre tried to
• Robespierre made sweeping
execute even more people, he
changes to France, some good:
found himself arrested instead.
• He, and many close friends, were
• Metric system introduced
rushed to the guillotine and
• New calendar
killed. Died July 28, 1794
• Modernized industry
• Reign of Terror was over.
• Made army more efficient
• New schools and universities
• Robespierre, who once opposed
• Confiscated property of
the death penalty, had murdered
émigrés
thousands.
But his time was coming to
an end
Unit 4 – Napoleon’s Rise and Fall
Napoleon’s early career
 Born on island of Corsica
 Part of Italy ruled by France
 Minor nobility family
 Father goes to Paris to be part
of new govt. at Versailles
 Napoleon goes along with him
 Enrols in Military academy
(not his idea). Loves it.
 Father dies in 1785. Napoleon,
at age 16, becomes head of the
family.
Napoleon’s early career
 Felt lonely for home. Often
 After graduation, he read a lot to
educate himself. Worked better.
very poor.
 Phenomenal memory. Later
 Mother, Laetitia Bonaparte, would know smallest details
insisted family ties remain
about his army and troops. Very
strong and members
good skill to have.
support each other. Very  Follower of Rousseau and many
strong personality.
ideas of Revolution
 Became an artillery officer.  Hated idea of mob violence
though. Order needed.
tier training and education  Recaptured city of Toulon from
anti-revolutionary forces in 1793.
 These men received top Napoleon an average
student
Napoleon’s early career
 Success attracted attention.
 Became one of the youngest
Generals in the army.
 In 1795, a mob of French were
storming towards the
Convention center. Napoleon
loads cannons with grapeshot
and shoots into crowd at close
range.
 Hundreds killed or maimed at
once.
 “Whiff of grapeshot”
 Given command of French army
in Italy.
Italian and Egyptian Campaigns
 Austria goes to war with
France during the revolution.
Italians hoping for French
victory.
 Napoleon knows he needs
Italian Support.
 Makes famous 1797 address to
Italy.
 Full of promises....
Italian and Egyptian Campaigns
“Peoples of Italy! The French army comes to break your
chains. The French nation is friend of all nations;
receive us with trust! Your property, your religion,
your customs will be respected. We shall wage war
like generous enemies, for our only quarrel is with the
tyrants who have enslaved you.”
Italian and Egyptian Campaigns
 In 1796, Napoleon wins
brilliant victories in Italy and
drove out Austrians.
 Set up French-controlled
Republics.
 Promises to people quickly
forgotten by French.
 Soldiers stole paintings,
jewellery, valuables from tombs.
 Napoleon paid army from Italy’s
spoils. Became very rich himself.
Italian and Egyptian Campaigns
 Asks French govt. for
permission to go into Egypt
in 1798.
 Says it will cut off Britain from
her rich colony in India.
 French govt. is growing nervous
about Napoleon’s power and
popularity. Glad to have him out
of France... and give go-ahead.
 Mighty Egyptian army is quickly
crushed.
 Brilliant tactics and speed by
Napoleon.
 British get involved and not
so easily beaten.
 British navy destroys
Napoleon’s at Battle of the
Nile.
 British admiral = Horatio
Nelson.
 Napoleon finds himself and
troops in dangerous position.
 Abandons troops in Egypt
and goes back to France.
 Hero’s welcome. Hugely
popular.
Becoming First Consul
 French govt. after Revolution was
inefficient and corrupt.
 Those who seized power are eager
to benefit from new position
 ...much like the govt. they
overthrew.
 Napoleon overthrows it in 1799.
 Has the support of the army.
 Sets up himself as First Consul.
 Starts to bring about reforms to
French society.
Making France strong
 First task to bring legal reforms
of Revolution into harmony
with code of law.
 French law needlessly outdated
and complicated.
 Ordered officials to completely
rewrite the laws into a new
Civil Code for the nation
 Became known as “The
Napoleonic Code”
 One of his greatest and most
lasting accomplishments.
 Much current law based on it,
including Canada’s.
Making France strong
 Guaranteed:
 Other things N. did for France:
 Right of equality under the




law
Right to hold property
Freedom of religion
Freedom to pursue career of
one’s choice.
Man the master of his house
and of his wife.

Napoleon quite discriminatory
towards women. Perhaps
remembering Josephine’s strong
will and unfaithfulness.
 Rebuilt and improved roads

Army could move quickly
 New harbours and canals
 Filled Museums with art
 New universities and schools

Young children to learn about
him.
 Kept price of food staples
low.


Bread, Vegetables, etc.
The starving will revolt.
Making France strong
 However... Economy still
not really strong.
 Wealth not generated,
but stolen.
 British far ahead
industrially.
 Napoleon put on high
tariffs for imported goods
to protect French
business.
Napoleon the Emperor
 Napoleon had supported
revolution, but now tried to
undo it.
 No need for Democracy
 Became more of a tyrant than
rulers of ancient regime...
including Louis-hold-mychamberpot- XIV
 Napoleon looked back on
Roman system as ideal.
 Title of “First Consul”
 Dressed in Roman ways
Napoleon the Emperor
 Cemented his control at home.
 Secret Police
 Control over papers, media, law, etc. Books and papers
censored.
 School curriculum had to
include lessons on his
greatness.
 Yet, always remembered
he needed public support,
or face overthrow in
another revolution.
Napoleon and Europe
 In 1800s, he wanted to
expand and control most
of Europe.
 Britain greatest enemy.
 Huge and powerful navy
 Could not control seas.
 Forbade all colonies of

 Had beaten him in Egypt
 Planned an invasion of
England with thousands
of troops.
 British captured his fleet
before he could get it
going. Lord Nelson.



France to trade with Britain
or its colonies = continental
system
Fines and reprisals for
allowing British ships to
dock.
Smuggling a huge thing.
British made it illegal for
anyone to trade with
France.
British sea control meant
more harm to France than
Britain.
Napoleon and Europe
 Rivalry spilled over to
other places.
 Canada = French
 United States = Former
British Colony.
 Started war there too.
War of 1812.
 Napoleon knew victories
kept him in power.
 Keen mind and pride led
him to believe he could
defeat any army.
 Using speed and surprise,
he defeated armies of
Austria, Prussia, and
Russia.
 Leaders forced to sign
Treaty of Tilsit in 1807.
 Napoleon controlled
much of Europe.
 Could start really hurting
British trade.
 Family members made
monarchs in Italy,
Naples, Spain, Sweden,
Germany & Holland.
Napoleon and Europe
 Napoleon insisted all parts





of empire base
governments and legal
systems on those of France.
Napoleonic code reached
many nations.
Abolished serfdom
everywhere.
Also inherited privileges of
aristocrats now gone.
Religious tolerance
Many ancient feuds ended.
The rise of Nationalism
 Many conquered nations
were happy. Liked
revolution ideals and
freedoms for common
people.
 The Declaration of the
Rights of Man gave far
more than anything else
in Europe.
 France finally came
under one language,
culture, history.... A
NATION.
 Places like Austria still
had many languages and
cultures.
 Many resented Austrian
rulers and wanted a
nation as well.
 Napoleon promised
various peoples in
Austria he would help
them establish new
nations. Got the help...
but French interests
always came first.
The rise of Nationalism
 Nationalism as a
movement could not be
stopped.
 Unfortunately,
Nationalism can easily
turn into Racism.
 Started 2 World Wars
 German nationalism
killed 6 million Jews.
 Ethnic cleansing in
Bosnia, Rwanda,
Darfur...
Loss in Spain
 Nationalism began to
work against Napoleon.
 Members of his family
were not accepted as
rulers in other countries.
 Spain felt strong
resentment.
 Formerly very strong
 Helped Napoleon attack
Portugal, but didn’t
accept Napoleon or his
brother Jerome.
 Brutal reprisals by




French couldn’t break
their spirit.
In 1808 in full rebellion.
Used Guerrilla warfar.
British sent troops under
Duke of Wellington to
help.
French in 5 year war they
couldn’t win. Losses
mounting. Morale
dropping.
Loss in Spain
Everywhere all through Spain battles were fought, towns were besieged. One of the most famous
sieges was that of Saragossa. The fortifications were poor; but the hearts of the people were
stout. Day by day they held out, the women fighting beside the men. One woman, named
Maria Augustin, became famous, and was called "the Maid of Saragossa." She fought beside
her lover, helping him to fire the cannon of which he was in charge, and when he fell dead, she
still went on fighting and worked the cannon herself.
Hunger and disease fought against the brave defenders. Still they held out. But the French at last
gained possession of a convent which was almost within the walls. Their leader then sent a
summons, to the town. It was short and sharp.
"Headquarters, St. Engracia. Surrender," was all it said.
The reply was as sharp. "Headquarters, Saragossa. War to the knife."
At last, hearing of the defeat at Bailen, where Dupont and all his men had laid down their arms to
the Spaniards, the French gave up the siege of Saragossa and marched away, "Foil'd by a
woman's hand, before a battered wall.
Maria Augustin, is justly one of history’s most celebrated women.
The Russian Campaign
 Losses in Spain didn’t mean Napoleon didn’t fight elsewhere.
 Started to overextend himself.
 Russia at first a forced ally with France, but Tsar changed his
mind. Napoleon declares war again.
 Knew it would be hard, but victory would come with a
decisive battle.
 Assembles army of 600,000 men.
 Soldiers were French, Dutch, German, Polish, and Italian.

Promised their own nations after the war.
 Napoleon wanted to trap and destroy Russian army, and
force a surrender.
 Won two main battles, but Tsar wouldn’t quit.
The Russian Campaign
 Weakened, but still able to fight, the Russians retreated
into Russia, burning food and shelter as they went.
 Napoleon’s army needed to live off the land and were far
from France. Real problem forming.
 Daily supplies needed:
- 9600 wagons of food
- 28,000 wagons for horses
- 60,000 cannon balls / battle.
- 2,000,000 musket cartridges / battle
The Russian Campaign
 Napoleon reached




Moscow and expected
victory.
City was empty... and
burning.
Now October. Winter
coming. Napoleon
orders full retreat.
Soldiers stole/grabbed
any loot they could find.
Tossed wounded friends
out of carts, leaving
them to die.
 Forced peasants to
carry the food stolen
from them.
 Fed on dead
horses... As long as
they didn’t freeze
and couldn’t be cut.
 Thousands died
from cold and
exposure.
The Russian Campaign
 Fierce Cossack warriors hit the




retreating army and raided at
will.
Soldiers begin to desert and
take own chances.
In the end, only 9000 could
still fight.
In December, army virtually
ceases to exist.
Napoleon abandons army and
flees on his own back to Paris.
Abdication and Exile
 Napoleon still not ready
to give in.
 His officials raise a new
army and continued to
fight Prussians,
Austrians, and Russians.
 Wins several battles.
 But things falling apart.
 Vocal opponent
(Madame de Stael) urges
Sweden to help
Napoleon’s enemies.
Does.
 Napoleon lost an
important battle at
Leipzig = final blow.
 Napoleon loses final
battle near Paris.
 Gives up the throne and
exiled to Island of Elba,
near Italy.
 Emotional farewell to his
soldiers. Still lots of
loyalty.
 N’s defeat marks end of
last stage of French
Revolution.
Return of the Monarchy... briefly
 New king began to
torture and murder
Bonapartists.
 People = “Kings have
learned nothing, and
forgotten nothing.”
 Longing for Napoleon
again.
 As Emperor on Elba,
Napoleon is unhappy.
 10 months in exile and he
returns with 1000
soldiers.
 Road back blocked by
royal troops.
 Napoleon walks
forward = “If you want
to shoot your emperor,
here he stands before
you.”
 Soldiers come over to
his side. Weeping,
cheers, hugging.
Return of the Monarchy... briefly
 Allies against Napoleon
are worried. Begin to
move and hope to join up
as a massive single force.
 Napoleon rushes out
towards Belgium, hoping
to eliminate one portion
before they can join up.
 Face British and German
troops at Waterloo.
 June 1815.
 Duke of Wellington faces
Napoleon.
 British and German
troops fight very well.
Don’t retreat under
heavy fire.
 Napoleon’s forces fight
back. Old guard cut to
pieces under musket fire.
Return of the Monarchy... briefly
 Eventually the French
army is routed (first
time).
 130,000 battle in a small
area
 50,000 killed or
wounded
 12,000 Calvary charge
British lines, but
massacred by squares of
muskets. Roman
formation.
 Napoleon is over. Last big
gamble.
 Napoleon flees again,
covered by loyal troops.
 Captured by British naval
commander at Port of
Rochefort.
 Wanted to exile in Britain
 Powers too afraid of him
 Sent to Saint Helena, an
Island far in the South
Atlantic.
 Patrolled by British ships
and 5000 troops.
Unit 5 – The Age of Steam
Introduction
 Not all revolutions are violent,
some happening as a result of
new inventions or ways of
doing things.
 After 1700 the ways of growing
food, making goods, and
transporting things changed
radically in Britain.
 Change was great enough and
affected so many, it was called
the “Industrial Revolution.”
 Its effects remain evident
today in our own lives.
Introduction
 Our grandparents saw the invention of the car, airplane,
television, and satellites. We are witnessing a
technology revolution in our lifetime.
 For people in Britain, some became incredibly rich,
while others suffered horribly in long hours at
miserable and unsafe factories.
 Cities became more
dirty, crowded,
dangerous, and
disease-ridden.
Introduction
 Children were not spared in
this ‘civil’ revolution.
 The economy of the world
became global. Some
countries were linked through
colonies. The colonies
provided the “Mother
Country” with raw materials
and bought back the
manufactured goods.
 These countries often became
industrialized themselves
(ie: Canada).
Why Britain?
 It began in Britain and took
many years to reach the rest
of Europe. So why there?
 Britain contained all the
essential elements for it:
 Many went into business.
They had excess money
(Capital) to invest.
 Many colonies to ship in raw
materials or goods to be sold,
and they were the new
 Good supply of people
markets for the finished
willing to work (Labour
goods.
Supply).
 Scientific advances made in
 Farming enhancements meant
Britain, under support and
less needed on the land and
funding by the government.
more looking for other work.
 Large deposits of raw
 Middle Class now in
materials such as Coal
government and could pass
provided fuel for machines.
laws that helped their
businesses grow.
Agricultural Revolution
 Big changes to agriculture in terms of inventions and
methods.
 Jethrow Tull and Lord Townshend were two key figures.
 Tull invented the Seed Drill that laid seed in neat rows of
drilled holes. More grew, easier to cultivate and harvest.
Also used manure as fertilizer.
 Townshed grew 4 crops in 4 years (turnips, barley,
grasses, and wheat). Turnips and grasses released
nutrients back into the soil and were cheap food for
animals. Land no longer needed to be left fallow.
 France and others far behind.
Agricultural Revolution
 Center of England, called “the
Midlands” was growing fast.
 Towns such as Manchester
and Liverpool grew into huge
cities. Filled with out-of-work
farmers looking for jobs.
 The more efficient farms
could feed the growing
population of non-farming
workers.
Economic Revolution
 England had a pro-business
government.
 Although only those with wealth or
power could get seats, this no longer =
only nobility.
 Many entrepreneurs got power as well.
 Ordinary people (the poor) still
couldn’t vote. Women couldn’t vote
 Two main parties:
 Whigs – Represented middle-class
 Tories – Represented rich
Economic Revolution
 Government followed an
economic policy called
Laissez-faire.
 Meant business and industry
is as free from government
interference as possible.
 Theory was that competition
and self-interest would
motivate businesses to grow,
produce more, hire more, and
benefit everyone. (didn`t
work out well for average
workers though – low wages,
no rights.)
Textile Industry
 The textile industry was an important part of the
industrial revolution, and it helped make Britain into a
rich and powerful country.
 It had the greatest amount of technological change out
of all industries.
 Textiles = Cloth and Cloth Producers.
 Now most textiles are synthetic, many made from oil
 Then it came from
plants or animals:
wool-sheep,
silk-worms,
linen-flax.
Textile Industry
 Britain’s climate was good
 From colonies came cotton (USA,
for sheep, so they had a lot
India). Also dyes came from
of them.
India.
 Enclosures made it possible  Many early inventions during this
(and profitable) to keep
time centered on this industry.
huge amounts of sheep.
 John Kay and James Hargreaves
Wool harvested cheaply and went literally from “rags to
turned into cloth in
riches” because of their
neighbouring communities.
inventions.
 Wool was high quality, and
 John Kay – Flying Shuttle.
in high demand in Europe.
Weaving faster, and large
 This textile industry drove
looms needed only 1 person.
Britain’s desire for colonies.
Textile Industry
 This unbalanced things though. Weavers could process
the yarn faster than spinners could produce it.
 In 1764, James Hargreaves invents the Spinning Jenny
(named for his wife).
 It was hand-cranked
and allowed the
spinner to spin several
threads at once
(instead of just 1).
 James tried to keep
the invention to
himself (being a
spinner), but news
got out.
Textile Industry
 One day an angry group of spinners broke into
his house and destroyed the machine. The were
led by General Lud, and became known as
Luddites.
 James moved away, found $$ partners, and set up
his own factory. Became very rich.
 Soon Spinning Jennies were used all over
England.
 This inspired other people to invent as well.
 Richard Arkwright developed the Water Frame
that spun yarn using rollers. Faster than the
Jenny. Richard got rich.
Textile Industry
 Samuel Compton built a
machine he called a “mule.”
 Combined best features of
the Spinning Jenny and the
Water Frame.
 More inventions followed.
 As mechanization increased,
factories were needed to
house these massive
machines.
 Workers needed to watch and
maintain them.
 Power needed to run them…
The Steam Machine
 Other industries needed
power too. If you were close to
running water, you could use
waterwheels to run your
machines. But.. Soon it’s not
enough.
 Breakthrough came as a result
of an issue in coal mines.
Water seeped in, and needed
to be pumped out.
 Thomas Newcomen invented
a machine that used
compressed steam to pump
water out. Steam Engine.
The Iron and Coal Industries
 Iron and Coal industries really
grew when Abraham Darby
invented a process for making
better cast iron. Others
improved on it.
 Soon cast iron products were
everywhere… pots and pans all
the way to massive bridges.
 England became world’s
leading producer of it.
 Coal needed to make iron, so
both industries grow.
The Iron and Coal Industries
 Everyone used coal in winter
to heat their homes. England
is very damp and cold.
 Coal fairly cheap to buy, but
that’s because miners were
paid very little.
 Mines went far underground.
 Coal makes methane gas,
which can easily explode.
 Coal dust is highly toxic
to the lungs and throat.
Mechanization & Factory System
 Before the Ind. Rev., people made things in their homes
or cottages, and sold them. Called still today a Cottage
Industry.
 A person with money to invest, a capitalist, paid money
to make a product at home, paid a set rate for it, and
then resold it at profit.
 Farmer’s wives
often worked
like this while
husband is in
the fields.
The Factory Age
 Arkwright realized it made sense to do everything under
one roof. Had all parts of process from spinning to final
product done in his factories.
 Allowed him control over entire process, and over all
people who worked
for him.
 Most employers
cared little for their
workers.
 Long hours in
dirty, noisy, and
dangerous
buildings.
The Factory Age
 Profit is made once you take away your overhead
costs… including wages.
 So, owners made wages as low as possible.
 Didn’t make
improvement that
would make the job
safer or easier.
What did they care?
 Conditions were
truly inhumane.
Child Labour
 Of all who suffered during this
 Conditions often
time, children had it the
worst.
 Went into work force without
any choice.
stunted their growth or
deformed their bodies.
 In the 1830’s Britain
began to take note and
interviewed current and
past child workers.
 No education or school
 Poor families need all wage
earners to survive. Parents
making very little.
 Children useful because of
their small size.
 Could be shoved down
shafts, up chimneys, or under
machinery.
 Many lost limbs.. Or
lives.
Child Labour
 Working children suffered from pollution inhaling in
coal mines, textile factories, and other places.
 Air in textile factories often heavy with fluff and
microscopic fibres that burned into the lungs.
 Noise was often
deafening.
 Part of wages paid
for your food,
which was terrible.
 Long hours of
overtime work.
 Often beaten and
abused.
The Factory Acts
 Throughout 18th and 19th
centuries, Social Reformers tried
to improve the lives of working
people.
 In spite of efforts, it took many
decades to get them dignity and
better conditions.
 Workers tried to help themselves
also.
 Tried to use medieval guilds to
unify their protest.
 Government made these things
illegal.
 Parliament
controlled by the
wealthy owners,Said
this would damage
economy.
 Eventually, there’s
some investigation
and parliament
grows appalled at
how bad it really is.
 Passes a series of
Factory Acts.
Women in the Industrial Age
 The Industrial Revolution changed the way women
worked and lived.
 In the cottage industry, they worked close to home and
with their husbands.
 Unmarried and elderly women could work in the
“Family Business”
and support
themselves.
 When this method
died, they had to
look for work
elsewhere.
Women in the Industrial Age
 Those in the country had few  In factories and mines, working-
options:
class women shared the same
hardships as other working-class
 Try to go into service –
people.
work as a servant for
money, or find a job on a  They pulled carts through mine
farm.
shafts, and did all sorts of dirty
and hard work in the textile
 Often landowners used
industry.
“gangs” of women to do
agricultural work such as  However, not all women ended
weeding and harvesting.
up like this. For some, things got
better.
 Failing that, women had to
work in factories. Because so
 Had some spending money
many were available, their
for the first time.
wages were also very low.