Download natural selection

Evolution
Diversity of Life
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1
Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution
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Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
1809
One Of First Scientists
To Understand That
Change Occurs Over Time
Stated that Changes Are
Adaptations To
Environment acquired in
an organism’s lifetime
Said acquired changes
were passed to offspring
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2
Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution
Idea called Law
of Use and
Disuse
 If a body part
were used, it
got stronger
 If body part
NOT used, it
deteriorated

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Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution

Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics
Proposed That By Selective Use Or
Disuse Of Organs, Organisms
Acquired Or Lost Certain Traits
During Their Lifetime
 These Traits Could Then Be Passed
On To Their Offspring
 Over Time This Led To New
Species
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
Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution

Use & Disuse -
Organisms Could
Change The Size Or
Shape Of Organs By
Using Them Or Not
Using Them
Blacksmiths & Their
Sons (muscular arms)
 Giraffe’s Necks
Longer from
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stretching)

5
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Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution

Inheritance Of Acquired Traits
– Traits Acquired During Ones Lifetime
Would Be Passed To Offspring
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7
Clipped ears of dogs could be passed to offspring!
Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution
Tendency Toward Perfection
 Organisms Are Continually Changing
and Acquiring Features That Help
Them Live More Successfully In
Their Environment
 Example: Bird Ancestors Desired To
Fly So They Tried Until Wings
Developed

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8
Lamarck’s Mistakes
 Lamarck
Did NOT Know how
traits were inherited (Traits
are passed through genes)
 Genes Are NOT Changed By
Activities In Life
 Change Through Mutation
Occurs Before An Organism Is
Born
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9
Charles Darwin the
Naturalist
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Voyage of the Beagle
Charles Darwin

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Born Feb. 12, 1809
Joined Crew of HMS
Beagle, 1831
Naturalist
5 Year Voyage around
world
Avid Collector of Flora
& Fauna
Astounded By Variety
of Life
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Darwin’s Voyage of Discovery
A reconstruction of the HMS Beagle sailing off Patagonia.
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Darwin Left England in 1831
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Darwin returned
5 years later in 1836
13
HMS Beagle’s Voyage
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The Galapagos Islands

Small Group of Islands 1000 km
West of South America
 Very
Different Climates
 Animals On Islands Unique
»Tortoises
»Iguanas
»Finches
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The Galapagos Islands
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Volcanic islands off
the coast of South
America
Island species
varied from
mainland species &
from island-toisland species
Each island had long
or short neck
tortoises
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The Galapagos Islands
Finches on the islands resembled a
mainland finch
 More types of finches appeared on
the islands where the available food
was different (seeds, nuts, berries,
insects…)
 Finches had different types of beaks
adapted to their type of food
gathering

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Darwin’s Observations
& Conclusions
The Struggle for
Existence
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Voyage of the Beagle
During His Travels, Darwin
Made Numerous Observations
And Collected Evidence That
Led Him To Propose A
Revolutionary Hypothesis
About The Way Life Changes
Over Time
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Darwin’s Observations
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Patterns of
Diversity were
shown
Unique Adaptations
in organisms
Species Not Evenly
Distributed
» Australia,
Kangaroos, but
No Rabbits
» S. America,
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Llamas
22
Darwin’s Observations
 Both
Living
Organisms &
Fossils collected
 Fossils included:
»Trilobites
»Giant Ground
Sloth of South
America
This species NO longer existed.
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What had
happened
23
Evidence for Evolution – The Fossil Record
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Definition
• Evolution is
the slow ,
gradual
change in a
population of
organisms
over time
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25
Darwin’s Observations
Left unchecked, the
number of organisms of
each species will increase
exponentially, generation
to generation
 In nature, populations tend
to remain stable in size
 Environmental resources
are limited

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Darwin’s Conclusion
• Production of more
individuals than can be
supported by the
environment leads to a
struggle for existence
among individuals
• Only a fraction of
offspring survive each
generation
• Survival of the Fittest
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27
Darwin’s Observations
• Individuals of a
population vary
extensively in their
characteristics with
no two individuals
being exactly alike.
• Much of this
variation between
individuals is
inheritable.
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28
Darwin’s Conclusion
• Individuals who
inherit
characteristics most
fit for their
environment are
likely to leave more
offspring than less
fit individuals
• Called Natural
Selection
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29
Darwin’s
Theory
of
Evolution
•The unequal ability of individuals to
survive and reproduce leads to a gradual
change in a population, with favorable
characteristics accumulating over
generations (natural selection)
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30
•New species evolve
Darwin’s Theory of
Evolution
Organisms Change Over Time
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31
Common Descent with
Modification
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Darwin proposed
that organisms
descended from
common ancestors
Idea that
organisms change
with time,
diverging from a
common form
Caused evolution
of new species copyright cmassengale
32
Natural Selection
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Driving force for
evolution
During the struggle for
resources, strongest
survive & reproduce
Idea that at least
some of the
differences between
individuals, which
impact their survival
and fertility, are
inheritable
.
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33
Origin of Species
Darwin Presents His Case
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Publication of “On The Origin
of Species”
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Upon His Return To England, Darwin
Developed His Observations Into
The Theory of Evolution
But He Did Not Publish For 25
Years –
Why?
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35
Publication of “On The Origin
of Species”
Darwin Knew That His Theory
Would Be Extremely Controversial
And Would Be Attacked
 His Theory Challenged Established
Religious & Scientific Beliefs,
Particularly About The Creation Of
Man

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36
Publication of “On The Origin
of Species”

He Refused To Publish Until
He Received An Essay From
Alfred Wallace
– Fellow Naturalist
– Independently Developed
The Same Theory
– After 25 Years, Someone
Else Had Come To The
Same Conclusions From
Their Observations Of
Nature
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Wallace’s Contribution
• Alfred Russel Wallace
Independently came to
same Conclusion as
Darwin that species
changed over time
because of their struggle
for existence
• When Darwin read
Wallace’s essay, he knew
he had to publish his
findings
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38
Publication of “On The Origin
of Species”
Darwin Presented Wallace’s Essay &
Some Of His Work At A Scientific
Conference of the Linnaean Society
in July of 1858
 Then He Started On his book
“Origin of Species”
 It Took Darwin 18 Months To
Complete The Book

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39
Natural Variation and
Artificial Selection
Abandoned The Idea That Species
Were Perfect & Unchanging
 Observed Significant Variation in
All Species Observed
 Observed Farmers Use Variation To
Improve Crops & Livestock
 Called Selective Breeding

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40
Natural Variation and
Artificial Selection
 Natural
Variation
– Differences Among Individuals Of
A Species
 Artificial
Selection
– Selective Breeding To Enhance
Desired Traits Among Stock or
Crops
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41
Natural Variation and
Artificial Selection
Key Concept:
In Artificial Selection, Nature
Provided The Variation Among
Different Organisms, And
Humans Selected Those
Variations That They Found
Useful
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42
Origin of Species
Concepts and Controversy
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43
Evolution By Natural Selection
Concepts
The Struggle for Existence
(compete for food, mates, space,
water, etc.)
 Survival of the Fittest (strongest
able to survive and reproduce)
 Descent with Modification (new
species arise from common ancestor
replacing less fit species)

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44
Survival of the Fittest

Fitness
– Ability of an Individual To
Survive & Reproduce

Adaptation
– Inherited Characteristic That
Increases an Organisms Chance
for Survival
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45
Survival of the Fittest
 Adaptations
Can Be:
– Physical
»Speed, Camouflage, Claws,
Quills, etc.
– Behavioral
»Solitary, Herds, Packs,
Activity, etc.
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46
Survival of the Fittest
 Fitness
Is Central To The
Process Of Evolution
 Individuals With Low Fitness
– Die
– Produce Few Offspring
Survival of the Fittest
AKA Natural Selection
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47
Survival of the Fittest
Key Concept
Over Time, Natural Selection
Results In Changes In The
Inherited Characteristics Of
A Population. These Changes
Increase A Species Fitness In
Its Environment
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48
Natural Selection
 Cannot
Be Seen Directly
 It Can Only Be Observed As
Changes In A Population Over
Many Successive Generations
– Radiation
– Fossil Record
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49
Descent With Modification
 Takes
Place Over Long Periods
of Time
 Natural Selection Can Be
Observed As Changes In
– Body Structures
– Ecological Niches
– Habitats
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50
Descent With Modification
 Species
Today Look Different
From Their Ancestors
 Each Living Species Has
– Descended
– With Changes
– From Other Species
– Over Time
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Descent With Modification
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Descent With Modification
Implies
– All Living Organisms Are Related
– Single Tree of Life
»DNA, Body Structures, Energy
Sources
 Common Descent
– All Species, Living & Extinct,
Were Derived From Common
Ancestors copyright cmassengale
53
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Theory of Evolution
Today
Supporting Evidence
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Homologous Structures
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Evidence for Evolution - Comparative Embryology
Similarities In Embryonic Development
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Similarities in DNA Sequence
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Evolution
of
pesticide
resistance
in response
to
selection
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Evidence for Evolution – Evolution Observed
Evolution of drug-resistance in HIV
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Evidence of Evolution
Key Concept
Darwin Argued That Living Things
Have Been Evolving On Earth For
Millions of Years. Evidence For This
Process Could Be Found In:
– The Fossil Record
– The Geographical Distribution of
Living Species
– Homologous Structures of Living
Organisms
– Similarities In
Early
Development 60
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Fossil Record
Earth is Billions of Years Old
 Fossils In Different Layers of Rock
(sedimentary Rock Strata) Showed
Evidence Of Gradual Change Over
Time

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61
Geographic Distribution of
Living Species

Different Animals
On Different
Continents But
Similar Adaptations
To Shared
Environments
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62
Homologous Body
Structures
 Scientists
Noticed Animals With
Backbones (Vertebrates) Had
Similar Bone Structure
 May Differ In Form or Function
 Limb Bones Develop In Similar
Patterns
»Arms, Wings, Legs, Flippers
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63
Homologous Body
Structures
Structures That Have Different
Mature Forms But Develop From
The Same Embryonic Tissues
 Strong Evidence That All FourLimbed Animals With Backbones
Descended, With Modification,
From A Common Ancestor
 Help Scientist Group Animals

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Homologous Body
Structures
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Homologous Body
Structures

Not All Serve Important Functions
– Vestigial Organs
» Appendix In Man
» Legs On Skinks
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Similarities In Early
Development
Embryonic Structures Of Different
Species Show Significant
Similarities
 Embryo – early stages of
vertebrate development

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Human Fetus – 5 weeks
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Chicken
Turtle
Rat
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Review
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Darwin's Theory
1.
2.
Individual Organisms In Nature
Differ From One Another. Some
Of This Variation Is Inherited
Organisms In Nature Produce
More Offspring Than Can Survive,
And Many Of These Offspring Do
No Reproduce
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71
Darwin's Theory
3.
4.
Because More Organisms Are
Produced Than Can Survive,
Members Of Each Species Must
Compete For Limited Resources
Because Each Organism Is Unique,
Each Has Different Advantages &
Disadvantages In The Struggle For
Existence
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72
Darwin's Theory
5.
6.
Individuals Best Suited To Their
Environment Survive & Reproduce
Successfully – Passing Their Traits To
Their Offspring.
Species Change Over Time. Over Long
Periods, Natural Selection Causes
Changes That May Eventually Lead To
New Species
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73
Darwin's Theory
7.
8.
Species Alive Today Have
Descended With Modifications
From Species That Lived In The
Past
All Organisms On Earth Are
United Into A Single Tree Of Life
By Common Descent
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The Gene Pool
•Members
of a species
can interbreed & produce
fertile offspring
•Species have a shared
gene pool
•Gene pool – all of the
alleles of all individuals in
a population
76
The Gene Pool
•Different
species
do NOT exchange
genes by
interbreeding
•Different species
that interbreed
often produce
sterile or less
viable offspring
e.g. Mule
77
Populations
•A
group of the same
species living in an
area
•No two individuals
are exactly alike
(variations)
•More Fit individuals
survive & pass on
their traits
78
Speciation
•Formation
of new
species
•One species may
split into 2 or
more species
•A species may
evolve into a new
species
•Requires very long
periods of time
79
Modern Evolutionary
Thought
Modern Synthesis Theory
•
•
•
Combines Darwinian
selection and
Mendelian inheritance
(Father of Genetics)
Population genetics study of genetic
variation within a
population
Emphasis on
quantitative
characters (height,
size …)
81
Modern Synthesis Theory
•
•
•
1940s – comprehensive
theory of evolution
(Modern Synthesis
Theory)
Introduced by Fisher &
Wright
Until then, many did not
accept that Darwin’s
theory of natural
selection could drive
evolution
S.
Wright
A. Fisher
82
Modern Synthesis Theory
•
•
•
•
TODAY’S theory on evolution
Recognizes that GENES are responsible for
the inheritance of characteristics
Recognizes that POPULATIONS, not
individuals, evolve due to natural selection &
genetic drift
Recognizes that SPECIATION usually is due
to the gradual accumulation of small genetic
changes
83
Microevolution
•
•
•
•
Changes occur in gene pools due to
mutation, natural selection, genetic drift,
etc.
Gene pool changes cause more
VARIATION in individuals in the
population
This process is called
MICROEVOLUTION
Example: Bacteria becoming unaffected
by antibiotics (resistant)
84
Microevolution of Species
Causes of Microevolution
•
Genetic Drift
–- the change in the gene pool of a small population
due to chance
•
Natural Selection
–- success in reproduction based on heritable
traits results in selected alleles being passed to
relatively more offspring (Darwinian inheritance)
–- Cause ADAPTATION of Populations
•
Gene Flow
–-is genetic exchange due to the migration of
fertile individuals or gametes between populations
86
Causes of Microevolution
•
Mutation
- a change in an organism’s DNA
- Mutations can be transmitted in gametes to
offspring
•
Non-random mating
–- Mates are chosen on the basis of the best traits
87
Genetic Drift
Factors that Cause Genetic Drift
•
Bottleneck Effect
- a drastic reduction in population (volcanoes,
earthquakes, landslides …)
- Reduced genetic variation
- Smaller population may not be able to adapt to new
selection pressures
•
Founder Effect
- occurs when a new colony is started by a few members
of the original population
- Reduced genetic variation
- May lead to speciation
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Loss of Genetic Variation
•
•
Cheetahs have little genetic variation in
their gene pool
This can probably be attributed to a
population bottleneck they experienced
around 10,000 years ago, barely avoiding
extinction at the end of the last ice age
91
Founder’s Effect
93
Modes of Natural
Selection
Modes of Natural Selection
•
Directional Selection
-
•
Favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic
range
Most common during times of environmental
change or when moving to new habitats
Disruptive selection
- Favors extreme over intermediate phenotypes
- Occurs when environmental change favors an
extreme phenotype
95
Directional
Selection
96
Disruptive Selection
97
Modes of Natural Selection
•
Stabilizing Selection
-
Favors intermediate over extreme phenotypes
Reduces variation and maintains the cureent
average
Example: Human birth weight
98
99
Variations in
Populations
Geographic Variations
•
•
•
Variation in a species due
to climate or another
geographical condition
Populations live in
different locations
Example: Finches of
Galapagos Islands &
South America
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102
Heterozygote Advantage
•
•
•
Favors heterozygotes (Aa)
Maintains both alleles (A,a) instead of removing
less successful alleles from a population
Sickle cell anemia
»> Homozygotes exhibit severe anemia, have
abnormal blood cell shape, and usually die
before reproductive age.
»> Heterozygotes are less susceptible to
malaria
103
Sickle Cell and Malaria
104
105
Other Sources of Variation
•
Mutations
- In stable environments, mutations often result in
little or no benefit to an organism, or are often
harmful
- Mutations are more beneficial (rare) in changing
environments (Example: HIV resistance to
antiviral drugs)
•
Genetic Recombination
- source of most genetic differences between
individuals in a population
•
Co-evolution
»-Often occurs between parasite & host and flowers
& their pollinators
106
Coevolution
107